When I worked as an English as a Second Language (ESL) coordinator in California, I noticed something puzzling about Maria, a new student from Venezuela. Despite her strong academic background, she rarely spoke in class. During group work, she would nod and smile but contribute little. When called on, her face would flush and her answers would be brief, even though her written work showed a deep understanding of the content in English. After class one day, Maria confided that she wasn’t speaking because she was afraid—not just nervous, but genuinely fearful of making mistakes in English.
Maria was experiencing what researchers call foreign language anxiety (FLA) (Horwitz et al., 1986), a phenomenon that affects countless English language learners (ELLs). FLA is a “complex phenomena of self-perception, attitudes, feelings, and actions associated with classroom language acquisition emerging from the distinctiveness of the language learning process” (Horwitz et al., 1986). In schools, we tend to focus on the cognitive aspects of language acquisition—vocabulary development, grammar rules, reading comprehension—but may overlook the emotional barriers that can halt academic progress just as powerfully as any other learning gap. This oversight has real consequences: When we fail to address the affective dimensions of language learning, we risk leaving students like Maria struggling—not because they lack ability, but because their anxiety is largely unacknowledged. Recognizing and addressing this emotional dimension is central to helping millions of English language learners thrive academically.
The Impact of Foreign Language Anxiety
Approximately 5.3 million students in U.S. public schools—10.7 percent of the total student population—are classified as English language learners. Research indicates that 1.5 million remain classified as ELLs for six or more years, becoming “long-term ELLs” who often struggle academically (NCES, 2023). They also make up a significant portion of the 800,000 English language learners who do not graduate from high school (NCES, 2023).
For students like Maria, learning English creates a distinct anxiety that goes beyond simple nervousness. This anxiety shapes how they perceive themselves as learners, influences classroom behavior, and impacts their learning experience. Anxious language learners often become “invisible” students in class—physically present but absent in participation. As one ESL teacher shared during a classroom observation: “For years I thought that if I taught the content clearly, that would ensure progress. Now I realize the biggest barrier isn’t understanding content—it’s overcoming the anxiety to speak.”
Research indicates that extending wait time improves both quantity and quality of language learner participation.
Practices to Support Students with Anxiety
Language anxiety often manifests in behaviors that teachers may misinterpret as lack of motivation or disengagement. Educators can watch for ELLs who display:
- Difficulty concentrating during language-intensive activities
- Physical signs of stress when asked to speak (blushing, sweating, trembling)
- Reluctance to respond to questions, participate in discussions, or ask for help
- Challenges connecting with classmates and becoming part of the classroom community
Such behaviors create a negative cycle: Anxiety leads to withdrawal from language practice opportunities, which only increases anxiety and diminishes confidence, ultimately impairing language development and academic progress. Without intervention, these students can spend years lacking the language confidence and competence needed to do well in school. Fortunately, even small shifts in classroom practice can make a meaningful difference for students caught in this cycle. Through my experience as an ESL coordinator working with ESL teachers, I’ve identified classroom practices that support students with high language anxiety, moving them from disengagement toward participation. The approaches focus on modifying the learning environment and interaction patterns rather than attempting to “fix” the anxious student.
1. Normalize Errors and Reduce Correction Anxiety
When I observed Ms. Lim’s middle school ELL class, she normalized students’ errors by openly discussing common mistakes: “When you say ‘I catched the ball,’ you’re showing me that you understand how to make past tense in English by adding -ed. That’s good—your mind is applying the rule correctly—but the past tense for ‘catch’ is a little different. It’s ‘caught,’ an irregular form that doesn’t follow the pattern. So, let’s make note of that.”
This approach helps students understand why they may have made a mistake and see errors as valuable information about their learning process rather than embarrassing failures. Research shows that the way teachers respond to errors significantly impacts students’ willingness to take risks with language (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002).
Also consider these approaches to helping students normalize errors:
- Discuss correction methods (written notes, verbal corrections, etc.) with students beforehand, giving them more control over their learning process.
- Provide delayed private feedback that allows students to avoid embarrassment in front of peers while speaking.
- Use selective correction that prioritizes errors interfering with meaning making.
- Implement regular conferences where teachers meet briefly with students to review error patterns in a low-anxiety setting.
2. Provide Extra Processing Time
Students with language anxiety tend to feel most stressed when put on the spot to speak publicly (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). In an observation with another teacher, Mr. Thomas, he explicitly signaled and structured think time for his high school ESL students before speaking: “We’ll take three minutes to consider this question about the start of WWI before we come back and talk. Think about it on your own, jot down some notes, then we’ll share the ideas in small groups, and lastly with the whole class.” This approach acknowledges the additional processing time language learners need—first to understand the question, then to formulate thoughts, translate ideas into English, and practice saying their response in English. Research indicates that extending wait time improves both quantity and quality of language learner participation (Horwitz et al., 1986).
Try these approaches to providing additional processing time:
- Extend wait time after asking questions and monitor students’ progress for the amount of time they may need for different questions.
- Signal think time explicitly (two minutes, three minutes) before asking students to share responses.
- Allow time for organization of ideas (brief notes in native language, writing, diagramming, etc.) before asking for verbal responses.
- Create “rehearsal opportunities” in small groups before public speaking.
3. Build Confidence Through Scaffolded Participation
In Ms. Rodriguez’s elementary classroom, I observed how participation structures gradually increase in linguistic demand. For example, a student with high anxiety may be provided the option to point to pictures on a chart during a science lesson, then progress to using single-word responses before eventually engaging in discussions using sentence frames such as, “I think ___ because ___.” Throughout this progression, Ms. Rodriguez carefully observes each student: “I match the language demand to their language competency and their current anxiety level, then gradually increase the load as they demonstrate readiness.” This progression builds confidence while providing multiple opportunities for language practice in increasingly challenging contexts.
Especially for beginner ELLs, try these specific scaffolding techniques:
- Provide sentence frames that students can choose from for verbal responses (e.g., I think ___ because ___.; A and B are different because ___.).
- Offer vocabulary word/phrase banks for participation in group discussions; then, as they progress, have the students create their own word/phrase banks for discussions.
- When speaking feels challenging, allow students to show their understanding nonverbally—through labeled diagrams, pictures, or concept maps that incorporate key vocabulary.
- For students who exhibit severe anxiety during presentations, offer the alternative of video-recorded presentations that can be shared with the class, reducing real-time performance pressure.
4. Establish Predictable Routines
Research confirms that students with language anxiety perform better when classroom procedures are consistent and transparent (Dewaele & Li, 2020). Ms. Rowles, who teaches 6th grade ELA with a number of newcomer students, reflects: “I used to think flexibility was key—switching up activities to keep things interesting. But I noticed my beginner English learners were constantly on edge, especially during transitions. Now I try to keep the schedule predictable and my newcomers seem much more relaxed when they know what’s coming next.”
Consider the following approaches to enhance predictability for students:
- Display visual schedules and review the day’s plan in the morning.
- Provide advance notice for changes or unexpected transitions (e.g., fire drills, substitute teachers, etc.) ahead of time.
- Develop signature phrases for transitions that become classroom anchors (e.g., “Let’s shift gears and move to . . .”) and use consistent and predictable language for classroom procedures.
5. Create Safe Spaces for Language Practice
Safe spaces for language use require involvement from the entire classroom community, not just the teacher. All students need to feel accepted and respected to learn effectively in school (Budge & Chandler, 2025), and English language learners who experience speaking anxiety require targeted support that empowers them as valued members of the learning community.
Try these approaches to creating safe spaces for practicing language:
- Create language exchange opportunities where students teach and learn words in each other’s home languages, allowing all students to experience being language learners.
- Implement lessons on what constructive peer feedback is and provide students opportunities to give and take constructive peer feedback.
- Design collaborative projects where language diversity and cultural diversity become assets, positioning students’ multilingual abilities as valuable resources rather than deficits.
- Use dialogue journals for private communication between the teacher and student.
Dialogue journals are a powerful tool for building confidence among ELLs. These private, written conversations between the teacher and student create a judgment-free zone where students can experiment with academic language, ask clarifying questions they might be embarrassed to voice publicly, and build relationships that transfer to increased classroom participation.
A Path to Confidence
Language anxiety doesn’t have to lead to student disengagement and academic underachievement when recognized and addressed effectively. By understanding foreign language anxiety’s impact and implementing supportive strategies, we can create classrooms where English learners feel confident taking risks with language.
The goal isn’t to eliminate anxiety entirely, but to control and transform it from a barrier into motivation for academic growth.
This understanding of language learning as both an intellectual and emotional endeavor has significant implications for the millions of ELLs, like Maria, who enter our schools each year. Ultimately, supporting these students means recognizing that engagement flourishes when anxiety is managed, confidence is built systematically, and students are valued genuinely as both language learners and classroom community members.
Reflect & Discuss
When you observe students withdrawing during language-intensive activities, what patterns do you notice? What environmental factors might be contributing?
Review your error correction approach with a colleague or through video. Does it invite risk-taking or inadvertently increase anxiety?
