Chapter 1. Teacher Quality and Teacher Selection

The term “teacher effectiveness”—some definitions of which can be seen in Figure 1.1—is broadly used to identify attributes of what constitutes a good teacher, but it is also dependent upon who is considering the concept. As we use the term throughout this book, teacher effectiveness is a set of experiences, traits, behaviors, and dispositions that are typically evident in effective teachers. Words such as ideal, analytical, dutiful, competent, expert, reflective, satisfying, diversity-responsible, and respectful have been used to describe good teachers (Cruickshank & Haefele, 2001). As demonstrated by this range of adjectives, “There is surprisingly little consensus on how to define a qualified teacher” (Ingersoll, 2001, p. 42).

Figure 1.1. Definitions of Teacher Effectiveness

No Child Left Behind has established a working definition of a qualified teacher as a teacher who is certified in the area in which he or she is teaching. Yet there are other measures of quality to consider beyond the federal guidelines, including student achievement, stakeholders' perspectives, and performance ratings. Teacher effectiveness is like beauty; it is often in the eye of the beholder when people recall a special teacher. In doing so, former students often use words like caring, intelligent, fair, funny, competent, and understanding. Combining what we know from experience with research findings helps to identify integral components that are common in most effective teachers. One way to synthesize the extant research on key attributes, behaviors, and dispositions of effective teachers is to consider six domains—or areas—of teacher effectiveness described by Stronge (2002) in the ASCD publication Qualities of Effective Teachers:

• Prerequisites of effective teaching
• The teacher as a person (i.e., personal attributes)
• Classroom management and organization
• Planning for instruction
• Implementing instruction (i.e., instructional delivery)
• Monitoring student progress and potential (i.e., student assessment and student expectations)

Let's examine each of the six areas.

Prerequisites of Effective Teaching

Prerequisites are attributes teachers bring with them to the classroom. Included among key prerequisite qualities are verbal ability, content knowledge, education coursework, teacher certification, and teaching experience.

Verbal Ability. Teachers make connections with their students through words and actions. A teacher's verbal ability has a positive effect on student achievement, as the ability to communicate content knowledge and belief in students is vital to teaching and learning (Darling-Hammond, 2000b; Haberman, 1995b; Hanushek, 1971).

Content Knowledge. A California study found that mathematics teachers who majored or minored in mathematics had students with higher test scores on the Stanford 9 Achievement Test (Fetler, 1999). The benefit of content-area preparation may be due to an intrinsic interest. Wenglinsky (2000) found that teachers with a major or minor in a subject are more likely to attend professional development offerings in that area and, subsequently, incorporate what they learn into instruction.

Education Coursework. In a study of 266 student teachers, educational coursework was a stronger predictor of student teaching performance than grade point average or National Teacher Exam specialty scores (Ferguson & Womack, 1993). Based on these findings, the authors wrote that increasing subject matter coursework and decreasing pedagogical work would be counterproductive, as there is a link between student achievement and teacher education coursework.

Teacher Certification. Teachers assigned to the area in which they are certified have been found to have more influence on student learning than uncertified teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2000b; Darling-Hammond, Berry, & Thoreson, 2001; Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000; Hawk, Coble, & Swanson, 1985; Laczko-Kerr & Berliner, 2002). For example, in a study comparing certified teachers who were licensed to teach mathematics with those licensed in another area, students taught by teachers instructing in their licensed field had higher levels of achievement (Hawk et al., 1985).

Teaching Experience. Experienced teachers have increased depth of understanding of the content and how to teach and apply it (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996). Additionally, experienced teachers are more effective with students due to their use of a wider variety of strategies (Glass, 2001). One study found that “schools with more experienced and more highly educated mathematics teachers tended to have higher achieving students” (Fetler, 1999, p. 9). This quality indicator does not necessarily mean that more years are better. Based on data from the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System, Sanders and Rivers (1996) found that teachers' effectiveness increased through the first seven years of teaching and became flat by around year 10. (Note: The minimal teaching experience in Sanders' original work was three years.)

The Teacher as a Person

If students are to learn, they need to feel comfortable in their instructional environment. In that respect, the personal connection that an educator makes with students assists in creating a trusting and respectful relationship (Marzano, Pickering, & McTighe, 1993; McBer, 2000). The ability to relate to students and convey a sense that they are valued and that the teacher wants them to be there is vital (Haberman, 1995a). Effective teachers have been described as caring, enthusiastic, motivated, fair, respectful, reflective, and dedicated individuals with a sense of humor who interact well with students and colleagues (Black & Howard-Jones, 2000; Delaney, 1954; National Association of Secondary School Principals [NASSP], 1997; Peart & Campbell, 1999). In brief, teachers' effect on student learning is increased when students are taught by well-prepared professionals who integrate their knowledge of instruction with a deep sense of caring about the individual students they teach. As Sizer (1999) puts it, “We cannot teach students well if we do not know them well” (p. 6).

Classroom Management and Organization

Classroom management and organization encompass skills and approaches teachers use to establish and maintain a safe, orderly, and productive learning environment. There are fewer disruptions and off-task behaviors in effective teachers' classrooms (Stronge et al., 2003). Effective teachers cultivate a positive classroom environment for their students by working with students to ensure that routines, procedures, and expectations are clear; additionally, these teachers take more time at the start of the school year to work with students on creating a positive class climate where individuals are treated with respect and fairness (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980; Hoy & Hoy, 2003; Shellard & Protheroe, 2000). They actively teach students their roles, offer clear explanations and directions, rehearse expectations with students, and then give students opportunities to be successful in meeting those expectations (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; Emmer et al., 1980).

When a discipline issue occurs, effective teachers are not thinking about what to do; they are responding in a predictable manner to the student behavior. In establishing a productive learning environment, effective teachers are recapturing instructional time that is often lost in administrative activities, discipline, and transitions (Hoy & Hoy, 2003). They remain actively involved in students' learning in an organized and positive classroom, as an organized and positive environment is associated with higher achievement gains (Education USA Special Report, n.d.).

Planning for Instruction

The area of planning for instruction offers insights into how effective teachers prioritize and organize instruction, allocate time, and set high expectations for student achievement and behavior. Effective teachers have knowledge about their content area, common student misconceptions, and available resources to use in the classroom (Buttram & Waters, 1997). They possess a deep understanding of the subject matter that facilitates their planning and instructional delivery (Rowan, Chiang, & Miller, 1997). Furthermore, they know how the curriculum relates to the content within the educational landscape (Educational Review Office, 1998). Additionally, they review instructional standards to guide decision making (Buttram & Waters, 1997). These teachers use long-range planning to map where instruction will go in combination with alignment of the curriculum to state and local standards (McEwan, 2001; Walker, 1998). They identify appropriate intended learning outcomes for their students and develop means to assess students on these outcomes during the planning process (Gronlund, 2003; Marzano et al., 1993).

An effective teacher plans for instruction by considering the overarching themes that can be addressed through “big questions” in particular units of study to provide clear and focused instruction in the classroom (Cotton, 2000; Johnson, 1997; McBer, 2000). The teacher incorporates a variety of instructional strategies and resources to facilitate learning and differentiate for student needs (Cunningham & Allington, 1999; Emmer et al., 1980; Mason, Schroeter, Combs, & Washington, 1992; McBer, 2000).

Implementing Instruction

The area of implementing instruction speaks to the nuts and bolts of what occurs in the classroom. Obviously, the way a teacher presents material influences how and how well a student learns it. Teaching is a complex task in which educators must determine the means to instruct students on the essential knowledge and skills to promote the acquisition of new knowledge and abilities (Langer, 2001). Effective teachers expect more from students and this, in turn, raises students' own expectations for success (Entwisle & Webster, 1973; Mason et al., 1992). They provide instruction in which students are actively engaged in minds-on and hands-on activities as they seek to construct meaning from the content while being supported by the teacher (Cunningham & Allington, 1999; Good & Brophy, 1997; Shellard & Protheroe, 2000; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1994). The teacher is actively involved throughout the lesson, providing additional detail and monitoring and adjusting based on student feedback (Education USA Special Report, n.d.; Panasuk, Stone, & Todd, 2002).

Effective teachers know how to use instructional techniques, such as mastery learning and cooperative learning. When used appropriately, these strategies can result in student achievement that is at least one standard deviation higher than that of students taught without the use of the strategies (Bloom, 1984). Effective teachers use technology during instruction to offer more individualized student attention, to provide hands-on experiences, and to shift the focus from the teacher to the student (Dickson & Irving, 2002; Holahan, Jurkat, & Friedman, 2000). These educators also use the students' prior knowledge as a starting point with hands-on, inquiry-based approaches to facilitate increased levels of learning (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996). Furthermore, effective teachers use questioning effectively. They not only ask questions, but also teach students how to ask quality questions themselves with appropriate follow-ups for prompting, redirection, and clarification (Covino & Iwanicki, 1996). Instructional strategies are like transportation vehicles: there are many different types one can use to get to the destination. In the final analysis, effective delivery of instruction is a complex process full of decisions, deviations from the original lesson plan, and responses to student inquiry.

Monitoring Student Progress and Potential

The area of monitoring student progress and potential focuses on how a teacher knows that students have acquired knowledge and skills in a manner that allows pupils to demonstrate academic success. Effective teachers monitor student learning through a variety of informal and formal assessments and offer timely feedback to students (Cotton, 2000; Good & Brophy, 1997; Peart & Campbell, 1999). They check for student understanding throughout a lesson and adjust instruction based on the feedback (Guskey, 1996). These educators align assignments given to students, such as homework and in-class activities, with the intended learning outcomes so they are meaningful to students in developing or reinforcing a concept and meaningful to teachers in analyzing the process and products (Cruickshank & Haefele, 2001). Effective teachers review progress over time using an accumulated body of work, such as a portfolio (Haertel, 1999).

The analysis of student assessment data informs effective teachers about the degree to which students have acquired specific understandings and skills, and guides them in setting instructional goals (Cruickshank & Haefele, 2001; Gronlund, 2003). As teachers analyze student progress, they keep students informed through timely and regular targeted feedback that can help students improve and be more successful in future work (Cotton, 2000; Hoy & Hoy, 2003; Marzano, Norford, Paynter, Pickering, & Gaddy, 2001; Walberg, 1984).

The Connection Between Teacher Quality and Teacher Selection

Although research studies seek to isolate and identify specific characteristics of effective teaching, it is the sum of all the factors that makes a teacher effective. For example, high-quality teachers combine instructional strategies with clearly focused goals and high expectations for both behavior and learning in order to promote student achievement (Cotton, 2000; Johnson, 1997; Marzano et al., 1993; Mason et al., 1992; McBer, 2000; Peart & Campbell, 1999; Shellard & Protheroe, 2000). Thus, while possessing one or even several of the teacher effectiveness quality indicators is not sufficient evidence that an applicant will be an effective teacher, it is a researchinformed method designed to increase the likelihood of selecting the best teacher applicants.

The interview is an opportunity to integrate all the different sources of information about a candidate (Castetter, 1996). If interviewers are aware of teacher quality indicators, they will have a toolkit of items that are likely to be indicative of teacher effectiveness. Along with other job-relevant information collected in the selection process—for example, writing samples, portfolios, or observations of demonstration lessons—such indicators allow us to be better informed about what to look for in an applicant and, consequently, more skilled at making research-informed hiring decisions.

A critical issue for school leaders charged with making hiring decisions is how best to capture the desired teacher effectiveness qualities in the review of employment applications and, subsequently, in employment interviews. One way to do this is by asking questions that are explicitly linked to quality indicators and using a rubric that clarifies essential evidence of each indicator to ensure consistent response assessment. It is for this purpose that the Teacher Quality Index was developed. While the methodology and use of the TQI is presented in detail later, Figure 1.2 offers a summary of how we have connected the research on qualities of effective teachers to the interview process.

Figure 1.2. The Qualities of Effective Teachers and the Teacher Quality Index

The Importance of Connecting Teacher Quality to Teacher Selection

Every student deserves a high-quality teacher. In today's K-12 environment, few students are afforded the opportunity to pick their own teachers. Parents' influence is typically minimal, at best. It is largely administrators who select students' teachers and make class schedules. Therefore, it is incumbent upon everyone involved in the teacher selection process to make the best possible selection. Although some school systems have the necessary resources to permit observation of teacher applicants in an instructional setting, for many, the teacher selection process is often grounded in the application, with its related documents (e.g., résumé, letters of recommendation, Praxis scores) and the selection interview. What guides these all-important impressions and hiring decisions? How do we know that from a pool of applicants, we've selected the best?

By looking for research-based qualities of effective teachers during the selection process, we increase the likelihood of selecting the best teacher applicants. The typical teacher selection process asks for a plethora of information; we just need to refine our methods of interpreting this information through an effectiveness lens. Research-based qualities of effective teachers can offer decision makers a means to ground what they look for in applications, on résumés, and during interviews. Thus, a well-constructed selection process should create a situation where teachers are selected based on a multitude of factors that ultimately influence student achievement.

In his book Good to Great (2001), Jim Collins states, “when in doubt, don't hire—keep looking” (p. 54). The question to consider, however, is how we distinguish high-quality applicants from less-than-high-quality applicants. Moreover, how do we know a good teacher when we see one? What we are really aiming for in teacher selection is predictive validity—that is, the ability to use the information available about candidates to make hiring decisions that result in capable and committed teachers. In the final analysis for the teacher selection process, hiring an effective teacher is game, set, and match. Unless we do, in fact, hire quality teachers, we all lose as our schools fail and children suffer.