Chapter 1. Activate Learning

Educator Dilemma: Drew was in my neuroscience elective, a three-week, intensive class for "gifted and talented" high school students. His motivation to learn the content was insatiable; in fact, we had to make rules for mandatory study breaks so that he would eat, exercise, and socialize. After the first week of class, Drew had read the entire college-level textbook, and it was evident he understood many of the topics from the rich conversations he initiated. He was curious about long-term potentiation and understanding neural changes that occurred during classical conditioning. However, when I collected his first test, it was completely blank. He had not answered a single question. I wondered what had happened. How could he have learned so much information but been unable to share any of it on an assessment? I asked myself, "Why is his test blank? He knows the content, so is this a problem of engagement?" In what ways does this educator dilemma resonate with you?

Emotion: The Activator of Physiology

In every moment of every day, your brain and body are subconsciously working to appraise your current situation. Are you basically OK in this moment? How much energy does your nervous system need to expend to handle the demands of the situation? Consider what is happening in your current surroundings: Is it loud or dark? Is there someone to interact with? Is there food to eat? Do you need to run away? Do you need to learn something? Now reflect on your body's internal state: Are you hot or cold? Do you need to shift your weight to relieve pressure on your back? Is your heart rate sufficient for the oxygen levels in your blood? Are you digesting food? Thankfully you don't need to actively monitor many of these states, but your nervous system does in every moment of every day.

In classic neuroscience, this appraisal of the body has been described as being like a loop. Incoming sensory information from the external environment (and internal body systems) was sent to, processed, and evaluated by the brain, which led to an appropriate motor output response. For example, if there was a buzzing mosquito near your arm, the sensory input was perceived and processed by your brain, which coordinated a response to shoo it away. This process maintains the body in a state of balance, or homeostasis.

Current understanding of the brain shows a much more dynamic process in play than this simple loop. It turns out that your brain is a phenomenal prediction machine. Instead of just waiting for incoming sensory information, it is actively appraising each moment to anticipate what you may need. For example, when I go out into the backyard in the summer, my brain is already predicting that the outdoor environment may include a lot of mosquitos, and it is evaluating the energy that will be required to maintain homeostasis within this context. It may begin to release glucose to my muscles, preparing for a lot of swatting. I may perceive the presence of a mosquito and shoo at it, only to find that there is not one there. My brain directs attention to pertinent stimuli from the environment to help achieve my goals, and it ignores unnecessary information, such as the sound of my neighbor's leaf blower or cars driving by. My nervous system predicts and budgets energy appropriately for that situation based on previous experiences and the goals of the situation.

Shifting to a school context, imagine you enter a classroom and are told, "Today we are going to research and deliver an oral report on spiders." How do you appraise this situation? Based on prior experiences, your brain begins to make predictions. It may evaluate this situation positively: "I have a pet spider and I love talking in front of the class." Others may appraise this situation negatively: "I dislike spiders. I hate talking in this class because kids tease me and this teacher does not like me." Your appraisal is based on your past experiences as well as experiences in this particular context. It is aligned to the targeted goal or task at hand. The appraisal occurs at both a conscious and a subconscious level, and you may identify the emotion in different ways, perhaps as being "excited and ready to go" or "slightly agitated and negative." Your brain predicts the energy demands it may require for this task in this context, and this prediction influences what you pay attention to, how you execute the tasks, and ultimately how you engage and learn in that moment.

Ultimately, at the core of these appraisals are emotions. Emotion networks are widespread throughout the brain and intricately connect to the body's physiological systems as well as to higher-order cognitive networks. Emotion networks connect with survival centers that influence heart rate, breath rate, and blood pressure. If you are nervous about presenting the spider report in front of peers, you may perceive an increase in activity in these systems and describe the situation by noting, "My palms are sweaty and I feel nervous." The physiological arousal that accompanies emotion also activates attention systems and motivates the body to take action. It recruits motor systems that move muscles and direct actions. Brain networks involved in memory formation, goal setting, planning, reasoning, and problem solving are recruited. These lead to observable behaviors. At the center of this abundance of activity is the emotional appraisal.

Each learner in a classroom will appraise and feel each situation differently based on the goals, the context, and the individual's previous experiences. Each will have unique brain activation and physiological responses, even if behaviors appear consistent. For example, some students may start in on the task and seem to be working in a fairly consistent way, even though their appraisals, internal processes, and predictions vary in a multitude of ways: one student may have just had a fight with a friend and may not be paying any attention to the lesson, another may have never done an oral report before and be overwhelmed, and another may be an experienced actor who is completely comfortable in front of an audience and cannot wait to give the report. For an educator, this variability can be a challenge and seem overwhelming to address in the classroom. How can you possibly be aware of all of the different appraisals and subsequent emotions of each learner in each situation? How can we design to address this range?

Designing for Emotion

Every learning event in our classrooms is appraised in this conscious and unconscious "is this good or bad for me" way. The appraisal causes a shift in physiology—perhaps heart rate and blood pressure increase, pupils dilate, and palms sweat. Individuals may consciously recognize these shifts ("I feel nervous"), or the shifts may be subconscious and manifest in an upset stomach. In addition, higher-order brain systems are activated, such as memory and planning centers. ("Remember that last oral presentation when I used index cards and practiced in front of the mirror? That worked great!" or "Last time I stuttered and no one could hear me. What options can help me this time?") As each learner progresses through the day, the brain predicts and appraises every situation as it relates to previous experiences and the current context. In this way, the brain budgets the body's energy resources to drive perception and prepare for action.

The first step in designing learning experiences for this range of emotional appraisal is to clarify the intended learning goal. For example, the focus of this learning experience may primarily be to deliver an oral report, with less emphasis on learning facts about spiders or learning to compile information into a report. Those other skills may be of focus in other lessons and may actually be a barrier for some to achieve the oral component. Once the target goal is clarified, focus on it! Identify the subskills required to effectively deliver an oral report and share those expectations with students. What does it mean to deliver a superb oral report? What do "expert" presenters do? Clarify the expectations so students know what they are going for. When you zero in on the goal, the brain knows what to focus on and how to predict and direct energy for attention, planning, and action.

Once you have clarified the goal for the task, reflect on the relevancy of the goal. Why does it matter? What is the purpose? Is there a meaningful connection you can make so that students will care? Because emotions are at the core of the brain's appraisals, connecting the goals to authentic and relevant experiences will help students activate their physiology and appraise the situation positively. It will invite curiosity, so they might take notice or want to explore more.

Finally, it is important to offer a few choices related to the identified goal. Because each learner brings unique experiences and backgrounds to each situation, offering even two options can help the nervous system appraise the situation in a more positive way. For example, if the goal is to deliver an effective oral report and meaningful connections are made to how this skill is relevant, then consider how you can offer a few options for students to select as they work to achieve that goal. For example, there may be the option to deliver the presentation to the class or to make a video of their presentation, like a news report. Another option might be to allow them to select any topic for the oral report. You might offer the option to use a graphic organizer and to preview the rubric that will be used to assess the oral delivery. Whatever the options are, the focus of the materials and methods should align with the intended goal, so learners are supported to get to high-level skills and can more positively appraise the context as one that is encouraging them to engage in the learning.

The Physiology of Emotion

When you feel an emotion—any emotion, such as disgust, excitement, or anger—your body goes through a range of physiological changes associated with the sympathetic nervous system, including changes in heart rate, galvanized sweat response, pupil dilation, blood pressure, digestion, and breath rate. Glucose, or sugar, can be triggered to be released from storage to deliver the energy needed for your muscles to move your body, whether it is to avert the oral report and talk with friends or to practice the presentation. A number of chemicals help prepare the body for action. Adrenaline mobilizes the body, increasing heart rate and blood pressure, and enlarging blood vessels—a combination that gives the skin a "blushing," reddish hue. It helps "tag" events for memory, so years later you might recall this spider presentation. Cortisol, a stress hormone, releases blood sugar that mobilizes muscles and helps with metabolism and immune function. It travels throughout the brain and body and therefore has a broad impact. Note that in prolonged amounts, cortisol is the chemical that can be actually become toxic to the hippocampus, the region of the brain fundamental to learning.

This physiology of emotional activation has remained fundamentally the same over thousands of years of evolution: the system that helped us survive on the savannah is the same system that is active today in our classrooms. However, today, instead of responding to an approaching tiger, students respond to events such as taking tests, reading, public speaking, researching, or choosing where to sit for lunch. The physiology of a student in a classroom can be as intense as it would be if he were escaping a tiger. In fact, physiological measures from a group of elementary school students reading a passage aloud to their peers were found to be as extreme as someone running from a tiger: stress hormones were high, galvanized skin responses peaked, and heart rate soared. The teacher, reflecting on this research, was understandably surprised and said, "I never thought of asking students to read aloud to the class as being like tigers in the room for some students."

Similarly, a teacher's physiology will be activated differently throughout the course of a school day, making predictions tied to previous experiences with different students, job responsibilities, or interactions with parents and colleagues. Both real and imagined stimuli spark changes in physiology, initiating changes that prepare the body to achieve the goals. Worrying about the upcoming spider presentation or parent-teacher conference can have similar effects on the physiology as the actual event. We learn to describe these changes in brain and body physiology in these different contexts as emotions, and we engage in the situations accordingly.

An Activation Model

A little activation of physiology is good for learning—in fact, it is necessary to kick-start the body to attention and action. However, as in the so-called Goldilocks syndrome, too little activation can result in apathy and boredom, whereas too much activation can lead to stress and anxiety. Returning to the example of the oral report on spiders, one student may appraise the task as incredibly boring. That student's heart rate and breath rate might be low, and cognitive networks such as attention and memory would be minimally active. Without enough activation, undesired behaviors may result, such as an incomplete draft of the speech, a dearth of research, or a poor delivery.

By contrast, another student's appraisal of this assignment may result in stress. He might be uncomfortable thinking about spiders and is nervous at the thought of presenting in front of the class. His heart rate and sweat level may increase; cognitive centers may not function as efficiently as they normally would. Too much activation of physiology diminishes cognitive processes such as attention and memory. This state leads to less conceptual flexibility or creativity; emotions overrule cognition. It may also result in undesirable actions, such as standing speechless during the presentation, or having shaking muscles and a cracking voice, or delivering the speech poorly. Notice that sometimes the observed behavior—in this case, poor delivery—may be similar for the two students, even though their emotional appraisals differ. Most students will fall on a continuum somewhere between these extremes, and the challenge for educators is that each student's activation system will be different in response to events in the classroom.

A "one-size-fits-all" lesson is unlikely to address the range of emotional appraisal and subsequent physiological activation of the students in the class. When we have students do the same task in the same way and at the same time, we are not designing for the range of students we know we have. To overcome this challenge, educators should follow the suggestions mentioned earlier: offer a clear goal, a relevant connection that addresses the question "why does this matter," and a few options within the lesson to support the intended lesson goal. These elements guide the nervous system toward the appropriate sensory and motor actions and support engagement for the learning task. As shown in Figure 1.1, which illustrates the "activation model," finding the right point on the spectrum between low emotional activation (boredom) and high emotional activation (anxiety) by offering relevant options for attaining the goal is the key to student cognition. Having an option to work with a peer, to use a graphic organizer, to see a model example, or to get to choose the animal to research can shift appraisal of the task. However, it is essential to have the learning target (goal, objective) clarified so that you are able to optimize the flexible options that you offer. Rubrics and assessments should focus on and highlight the necessary skills to achieve the goals, and even though learners begin in different places, each can progress toward the same goal. One educator's experience illustrates the potential benefits: "My learning goal was for students to write a comparative essay. I decided to let students choose their topics, instead of using my topics. One student who had not written much all year actually wrote two pages comparing pancakes and waffles."

Figure 1.1. Activation Model

Here is an example of how a 5th grade teacher incorporated a clear goal into her lesson so she could integrate targeted, flexible options to support the range of student activation during the learning event. As she had done before, Ms. McNabb had the local science museum bring a stargazing bubble to her classroom. Having the bubble in the classroom was usually a memorable event, but she started to think about the range of activation of her students and how to incorporate clear goals and purposeful options into the experience to enhance the learning. Many students became very excited when they saw the bubble and eagerly entered, but some were more reluctant to go into the dark, enclosed space with their energized classmates.

First, Ms. McNabb clarified the learning goal and discussed with the students why it mattered: "Have any of you ever told stories about the patterns you see in the stars at night? Today we will find a few different constellations so you can tell what season it is and even find your own zodiac constellation by looking at the stars." Then she realized that not all students necessarily had to enter the bubble; some could choose to watch the lesson through a window in the bubble or quietly use headphones and a video to learn the constellations. She recorded the stargazing session and posted it to her website so students could watch the video on their own, which helped students who were absent during the class period as well as those who missed some of the information during the session. She also invited students to create their own stories about the constellations instead of just learning the ancient tales. She noted that these goal-driven options in the lesson led to deeper levels of observation, discussion, and learning. More students seemed engaged.

These small modifications in lesson design optimized options and relevancy in support of the target goal. Some of these options were already present in the lesson, but the activation model helped Ms. McNabb reflect on why some of her teaching strategies worked (or did not work). She thought more about how the purposeful options for the clear, relevant goal helped students be in an active, focused state for learning. Not all students needed to do the same thing at the same time.

Understanding how the brain is an active predictor helps us understand why we need to set clear, meaningful goals. Thinking about the activation model helps us reflect on why we need to provide a few purposeful options to support the range of learners in our teaching contexts.

Invite learners to use the activation model themselves to reflect and share their thoughts about their learning choices. How do they initially appraise a learning goal? How do options for relevancy and learning choices change their appraisal and engage them more meaningfully in the task? Learners can become more metacognitive about options that work best or that do not work well for them as they pursue the goal.

In summary, based on previous experiences, a learner's brain appraises the energy and resources it may need to expend in a given context. Emotion networks are central to both physiology and cognitive centers; emotion is at the core of learning. Having a clear goal that matters and relevant options in the environment can shift emotional appraisal into a more active, directed state for learning.

How Emotions Tie the Knot for Learning

An adult sticks her tongue out at a baby, and the baby mimics the action by sticking out her tongue as well. The adult coos with praise. This interaction between the child and the adult included an emotional response, and we know that learning took place because the next time the baby saw the same adult, she stuck out her tongue again. Learning happened through the interaction of the baby with the adult, and even in such a simple example, it is clear that emotion played a key role.

Learning includes the process of gaining information from the environment or body systems (the child sees the adult stick out her tongue), actively trying out and incorporating the skills or behaviors (the child tries to stick out her tongue), and then applying them in novel circumstances (the child sticks out her tongue again, even without the adult initiating). The child in this example was actively engaged in the new experience, not just passively receiving information. The next time the child was in a similar context, the brain had anticipated and appraised the situation, which led to purposeful actions and behaviors.

For learning to occur, there must be an active interaction between the learner and the learning environment, including the work spaces in the room, the materials and methods of a lesson (e.g., books, technologies, handouts, rubrics, and assessments), and their peers and teachers. The learning environment can include scaffolds or tools and resources that students can use when first learning something but are intended to be gradually released once the learner becomes more proficient at the skill. Like the scaffolding on a building, learning scaffolds are meant to be removed over time. For example, a graphic organizer is a scaffold for writing that may help an individual achieve the writing goal. Over time, the graphic organizer is needed less, but initially it may be important to an individual's appraisal of the writing task. We can apply what we have learned about emotions and learning to this simple scenario, and you can extend it to think about your own classroom. How does designing a simple change in the learning environment—that connects to the intended learning goal, such as a graphic organizer for writing—influence a student's interaction with the environment and appraisal of the situation? How might this encourage more engagement and even risk-taking in the learning?

We learn emotions in much the same way that we learn words and concepts. Take, for example, how we learn the meaning of a dog. We perceive key features of a dog: two ears, four legs, and fur, and it barks. We interact with and share this understanding using language, pictures, and real examples to describe and highlight different kinds of dogs. We learn that a dog can be distinguished from a wolf or cat, which also have two ears, four legs, and fur. We learn best about dogs when we are able to have a contextualized, active experience with them (i.e., petting, smelling, and playing with them). Similarly, when we learn about our emotions, we begin to recognize the changes that take place in our brain and body due to interactions with the environment. We connect these changes to previous experiences we may have had, and we share a deeper meaning and understanding of emotions when we use a common language and share examples and experiences. For example, consider phrases such as "When I read this, I felt sad and there was a lump in my throat," "I was proud of the way she stood up to the bully, and I wanted to cheer," or "The last time I saw that, I laughed and felt happy." Notice how the words for the emotions connect to changes in physiology and are contextualized.

In the classroom, we may hear, "I was nervous when I presented in front of the class. My heart was racing, and I didn't want to talk." When we begin to clarify language for emotion in a learning situation and connect it with a goal, we can then start to design options to support the activation in the context. "Having a friend present with me helped me feel calmer" or "Practicing first with a video camera helped my voice be less shaky." The more we co-construct a language to describe emotions in connection to our body activation in a learning environment, the more effectively we can incorporate "emotional design" for learning.

Chapter Summary

Emotions are essential for learning. The brain's emotion networks connect with basic body survival systems such as heart rate and blood pressure, and they also connect with higher-order cognitive systems such as memory and attention. Perception, action, and behaviors always involve emotion networks. In any situation, the nervous system makes predictions about the energy demands it will have to support and appraises the situation by asking, "Is this good or bad for me?" This appraisal directs perception and action both consciously and subconsciously.

Each learner's system activates in a unique way—too little activation can lead to boredom or apathy, and too much activation can lead to stress or anxiety. The challenge for educators is to support the wide range of activation in a context with a range of learners. To do this, first identify a clear learning target and make it relevant and meaningful for your learners. Then proactively integrate or scaffold a few options into the environment that support learners' progress and achievement of that goal.

Revisiting the Educator Dilemma

Let's return to the anecdote at the start of this chapter, about Drew, a student who demonstrated a high level of comprehension of complex information but did not do well on a written assessment of this material. Using what was discussed in this chapter about the brain's predictive appraisals based on previous experience and the central role of emotion for cognition, there are several ways to reflect on this educator dilemma.

Here is how this teacher thought about some of the strategies from this chapter; how can you make connections from this chapter to your teaching?

• Know your learners will have a range of background experiences that influence their appraisal of a situation and engagement in the task. Drew's previous test-taking experiences influenced how his nervous system made predictions and appraised this situation. The testing environment might be "like a tiger" for his physiology, and his body system may be too activated. This can limit memory and cognitive flexibility so he is not able to demonstrate his full understanding in this context.
• Clarify the goal. In this case, was the goal to take a written test or to demonstrate knowledge? Depending on the goal, the options available will vary. If the goal were to demonstrate understanding, then it could be through any means. However, the teacher in this example determined the goal to be an understanding of the concepts through writing (a skill that scientists "in the real world" need).
• Integrate purposeful options in the learning environment to support the goal. For example, there could be
  

  • A practice opportunity, which could be completed and reflected upon collaboratively and with formative feedback before the assessment.
  • Flexible seating or time allotted.
  • Headphones made available as an option to reduce distractions from the environment.
  • An opportunity to use notes, textbooks, and other resources. (After all, when scientists communicate information in writing, they are able to use their resources.)

• Make the learning task relevant. Clarify why the task is important. For this example, discuss why it is important to be able to communicate what you know with others in a written form. Have students brainstorm when they may be in this kind of situation in the world outside school.

Note that the options should be available for all learners, not just Drew. Such availability allows all learners to build a repertoire of strategies to become experts about their strengths, challenges, and weaknesses. Ultimately, the educator will determine which options are offered and works with students to select strategies that help achieve the goals. This educator dilemma may be used as a model for thinking about learning and the brain through the lens of emotion.

Teacher Connection: 7th Grade Language Arts

Katie Novak, a 7th grade language arts teacher, thinks of building her lessons as being comparable to building a closet of shoes. She knows there will be a range of student emotions and that at any point students can demonstrate different strengths and challenges. For every lesson, activity, or discussion, she clarifies the goal and makes it authentic. She then shares options and strategies (the "closet of shoes") that are available for all students to use as they work toward the goal. She designs options into the classroom for all students to use ("a closet of shoes available for everyone").

Dr. Novak shares with her students how different shoes are more appropriate depending on the goal. If the goal is to go hiking in the snow, winter boots are a good choice. However, there can be choice within the category of "boots." Some will prefer boots with fuzzy, warm insides, while others might choose boots with a tough waterproof surface. Either boot will help students reach the goal of hiking outside in winter. When the goal changes—for example, if the goal is now to go out for a fancy dinner—different shoes become more relevant, and students are empowered to make choices that help them reach the goal. One of her students remarked, "Don't you like different shoes? Well, kids like different ways of learning. It is the same thing." Dr. Novak fills her classroom and lesson "closets of shoes" with options and lets students choose what works best for them for that particular activity.