Morgan transformed the physical look of the school, from her classroom out to the halls, from the walls to the ceiling, and even into the bus parking lot. She was an amazing artist in her own right, but she was also an extraordinarily effective teacher. Not only did her art lessons involve planning what techniques and media students would focus on, but she also met with core content teachers (math, science, social studies, and English) to link her instruction with theirs. Morgan planned for her classes to work outside of the classroom by painting murals around the school themed to the content areas. For her students to create these instructional masterpieces, she carefully monitored her meager art supplies and found ways to make them stretch, such as buying the “oops” paint (i.e., paint that is returned to the store) at the hardware store for big projects. Her students developed skills, shared their talents, and left a legacy to the school.

Teaching is a complex activity that involves careful preparation and planning objectives and activities on an hourly, daily, and weekly basis. In addition, long-term planning ensures coverage of curriculum across a marking period, semester, and year. Further, effective educators demonstrate high expectations for students and select strategies to propel the students' learning. Beyond planning and preparation of materials, effective organizing for instruction also involves the development of a conscious orientation toward teaching and learning as the central focus of classroom activity. Teaching and learning as a focus must be consistently communicated to students in the classroom and to observers. This chapter explores elements of organizing and orienting for instruction that have been identified as part of effective teaching practice. Figure 4.1, at the end of this chapter, outlines key references relating to these elements.

Figure 4.1. Key References for Planning and Organizing for Instruction

Reference	Importance of Instruction	Time Allocation	Teacher Expectation	Planning for Instruction	Teachers of At-Risk Students	Teachers of High-Ability Students
Bain & Jacobs, 1990	•	•		•
Bennett et al., 2004	•	•			•
Berendt & Koski, 1999	•	•
Berliner & Rosenshine, 1977	•			•
Bernard, 2003			•		•
Bloom, 1984			•
Bloom, 1985			•			•
Brookhart & Loadman, 1992				•
Brophy & Good, 1986	•	•
Cawelti, 1999	•	•	•
Cawelti, 2004	•	•	•
Corbett & Wilson, 2002			•		•
Cotton, 1999	•	•	•
Cotton, 2000	•	•	•
Covino & Iwanicki, 1996	•	•	•
Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993				•		•
Darling-Hammond, 2000				•
Darling-Hammond, 2001				•
Day, 2002				•	•
Education USA Special Report, n.d.		•	•	•
Emmer et al., 1980				•
Ford & Trotman, 2001				•		•
Freel, 1998			•			•
Good & Brophy, 1997		•	•
Good & McCaslin, 1992			•	•
Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994				•		•
Heath, 1997		•				•
Holt-Reynolds, 1999	•
Hutchinson, 2004				•		•
Jay, 2002				•
Johnson, 1997			•	•
Knapp et al., 1992			•	•	•
Lewis, 2001				•	•
Livingston & Borko, 1989				•
Marzano et al., 1993				•
Marzano, Norford, et al., 2001				•
Mason et al., 1992			•
Meek, 2003		•
Molnar et al., 1999	•
NCES, 1997		•
Nelson & Prindle, 1992				•		•
Peart & Campbell, 1999			•
Porter & Brophy, 1988			•	•
Pransky & Bailey, 2002				•	•
Pressley et al., 1998	•			•	•
Price, 2000			•
Rosenshine, 1986				•
Sabers et al., 1991				•
Shore & Delcourt, 1996				•		•
Silverman, 1995		•				•
Taylor et al., 2003				•	•
Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998			•
Wahlage & Rutter, 1986			•		•
Walker, 1998		•
Walls et al., 2002		•
Wang et al., 1993a	•	•	•
Wang et al., 1993b	•	•	•
Wenglinsky, 2004		•		•	•
Westberg & Archambault, 1997				•		•
Wharton-McDonald et al., 1998				•
Wong & Wong, 1998			•
Zahorik et al., 2003	•	•		•

Focusing on Instruction

The effective teacher recognizes academic instruction as central to his or her role. This focus on instruction guides not only the teacher's own planning and classroom behavior, but also comes across clearly to students and represents the major element in a robust learning environment. A teacher may say to students, “It is my job to see that you succeed,” or, “I want you to be prepared for life beyond the schoolhouse door.” Although effective teachers believe that students must be challenged, they also realize that students need to experience success.

Several studies have emphasized the importance of a focus on high-quality instruction in supporting student achievement, including the following findings and conclusions:

• Effective teachers see consistency and organization in their classrooms as important because they allow the central focus of classroom time to be on teaching and learning (Bain & Jacobs, 1990).
• Effective teachers give high priority to foundational academic goals related to benchmarks or standards (Cawelti, 2004) and give secondary attention to higher-order personal and social goals (Zahorik et al., 2003).
• Effective teachers who consistently prioritize instruction and student learning as the central purposes of schooling communicate an enthusiasm and dedication to learning that students reflect in their own behavior and practice (Bain & Jacobs, 1990).
• Effective teachers reinforce their focus on instruction through their allocation of time to the teaching and learning process, and through their expectations for student learning (Brophy & Good, 1986; Cawelti, 2004; Cotton, 2000; Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; Molnar et al., 1999).
• The amount of time students spend engaged in learning experiences, together with the quality of the instruction, is positively associated with student learning (Walberg, 1984).

Related Resources: Bain & Jacobs, 1990; Berliner & Rosenshine, 1977; Brophy & Good, 1986; Cawelti, 1999, 2004; Cotton, 1999, 2000; Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; Molnar et al., 1999; Walberg, 1984; Wang et al., 1993a, 1993b; Zahorik et al., 2003.

Maximizing Instructional Time

Time is one of the most challenging constraints a teacher faces in trying to achieve curricular goals and meet the needs of all students, while managing the administrative tasks that are a necessary responsibility of the job. According to various studies, teachers spend about 70 percent of their classroom instruction time on the core curriculum. The remaining 30 percent is spent on completing such tasks as collecting money for the school fund-raiser, enforcing classroom rules and procedures, participating in fire drills and schoolwide assemblies, and listening to schoolwide announcements (Meek, 2003; NCES, 1997). A study of U.S. mathematics lessons revealed that lessons were interrupted by a public announcement 29 percent of the time (Hiebert et al., 2005). Nonetheless, effective teachers do manage to maximize instruction by their thoughtful and careful use of time.

Research has demonstrated that student achievement is higher in classes where instructional time is maximized (see, for example, Taylor et al., 1999; Walberg, 1984). The effective teacher prioritizes instruction, a process that is accomplished partially through allocation of time. One illustration of how effective teachers best use the scarce commodity of time is in smoothly orchestrated classroom transitions; they remain involved with the students during the entire class period from start to finish, allowing for no idle or down time.

Use of time can be optimized in the classroom by careful planning or by using pacing materials. Students often want to know what is coming up next week or next month. Therefore, having a scope and sequence helps the teacher to plan and addresses student needs for information. For example, the use of calendars for long-term, weekly, and daily planning, in addition to providing a visual reminder to the teacher, can help students plan for work. Effective teachers are not only organized, but also they convey this vital skill to their students. Sharing with students how the teacher organizes time can serve as a model for students to assist in their own planning, thus equipping them with tools of success in the larger world and instilling in them habits of efficiency.

Staging areas help teachers maximize time by organizing materials for upcoming activities or common but unpredictable occurrences. For example, a list on the back of the door of what the teacher needs to do if a new student arrives fulfills a dual purpose: the new student feels that the teacher is organized, and the teacher feels prepared for the student. Another time-saving device is to use a designated place to keep materials such as attendance cards, hall passes, and extra paper. This saves time because the teacher does not have to search for the items. In essence, in the effective classroom there is a place for everything and everything is in its place.

Establishing a pattern so that students can anticipate academic transitions reduces the loss of instructional time. Students observe the routine and know what will occur. For example, a teacher who uses a class warm-up activity that is displayed on the board or at work stations when students enter the room accomplishes the following multiple purposes:

• Gives students a way to constructively use their time during a class change or morning arrival.
• Prepares the students for the day's activities.
• Offers the teacher an opportunity to take roll or respond to a note from a parent at the start of class while the students are engaged.
• Makes use of time that otherwise would have been lost.
• Provides a focus for the first few minutes of class that can be extended into an introduction for the lesson.

Some teachers follow the same routine virtually every class period, as they review homework, introduce a new concept, use the new skill in an activity, and, if there is time, have independent practice. Other teachers use visual cues to signal a transition as opposed to a routine set of activities. For example, playing music, ringing a bell, or flickering the lights may signal to students that they need to complete a task before the class can move to the next activity. Techniques and routines such as these can capture minutes a day that add up to instructional hours over the course of the school year.

Studies reveal that effective teachers exercise varying techniques and strategies to ensure maximum learning time. The practices suggested above and those that follow support the effective teacher's overall emphasis on instruction. Additionally, they provide the framework for maximizing not only instructional time, but also students' time on task. Effective teachers do the following:

• Follow a consistent schedule and maintain the procedures and routines established at the beginning of the year (Berendt & Koski, 1999; Brophy & Good, 1986).
• Handle administrative tasks quickly and efficiently (Zahorik et al., 2003).
• Prepare materials in advance (Bain & Jacobs, 1990; Walls, Nardi, von Minden, & Hoffman, 2002).
• Make clear and smooth transitions (Brophy & Good, 1986; Wang et al., 1993b; Zahorik et al., 2003).
• Maintain momentum within and across lessons (Brophy & Good, 1986; Cotton, 2000).
• Limit disruptions and interruptions through appropriate behavioral management techniques (Cotton, 2000; Education USA Special Report, n.d.; Wang et al., 1993b).

Related Resources: Bain & Jacobs, 1990; Berendt & Koski, 1999; Brophy & Good, 1986; Cawelti, 1999; Cotton, 1999, 2000; Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; Education USA Special Report, n.d.; Good & Brophy, 1997; Hiebert et al., 2005; Meek, 2003; NCES, 1997; Walker, 1998; Walls et al., 2002; Wang et al., 1993a, 1993b; Zahorik et al., 2003.

Expecting Students to Achieve

The previous chapter discussed the importance of the effective teacher's practice of clear, specific expectations for student behavior. However, clarifying behavioral expectations isn't enough; an accompanying clear and consistent focus on achievement expectations is also essential to academic success. Effective teachers believe in their students and expect all of them to learn, regardless of their skill levels and starting points. Moreover, effective teachers believe that students can learn; therefore, their students do learn. Unfortunately, this self-fulfilling prophecy works both ways. For example, if a teacher believes that students are low-performing, unreachable, and unable to learn, the students perform poorly, seem unreachable, and do not learn.

The expectations a teacher holds for students, whether consciously or subconsciously, are demonstrated through the teacher's interactions with the students during instruction. Research on teacher expectations has demonstrated that for the students in the bottom third of the class, many teachers have significantly lower achievement expectations and provide much less encouragement. Conversely, students in the top third of the class get the most teacher attention and encouragement (Good & Brophy, 1997). Student academic performance is influenced by a teacher's expectations and goals for student achievement (Wentzel, 2002). This pattern of teacher behavior can be eliminated through self-observation (videotaped or audiotaped lessons) and self-awareness, so teachers can then bestow the benefits of attention and encouragement on all students.

In several studies, teacher expectations have been shown to relate to student achievement, including the following findings and conclusions:

• High expectations are identified as a key component of student success (Cotton, 2000; Education USA Special Report, n.d.; Johnson, 1997; Peart & Campbell, 1999; Porter & Brophy, 1988).
• High expectations represent an overall orientation toward improvement and growth in the classroom (Good & Brophy, 1997; Mason et al., 1992), which has been demonstrated to be a defining characteristic of benchmark schools (Cotton, 2000).
• Some studies have suggested that subtle communication of lower expectations for certain students from teachers can limit achievement, while clearly articulated high expectations can become a self-fulfilling prophecy (Good & Brophy, 1997).
• Effective teachers not only express and clarify expectations for student achievement, but also stress student responsibility and accountability for striving to meet those expectations (Peart & Campbell, 1999).

Related Resources: Bloom, 1984; Cawelti, 1999, 2004; Cotton, 1999, 2000; Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; Education USA Special Report, n.d.; Good & Brophy, 1997; Good & McCaslin, 1992; Johnson, 1997; Mason et al., 1992; Peart & Campbell, 1999; Porter & Brophy, 1988; Price, 2000; Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998; Wang et al., 1993a, 1993b; Wong & Wong, 1998.

Planning and Preparing for Instruction

Teachers determine how content and skills are delivered in the classroom. School district curriculum, state standards, and national standards play a role in what students should learn (Jackson & Davis, 2000), but it falls to the teacher to structure how students should learn it. Planning is a deliberate process that results in teachers being well-prepared prior to walking through the classroom door for the day (Wharton-McDonald et al., 1998). Organizing time and preparing materials in advance of instruction have been noted as important aspects of effective teaching. Individual and team planning are beneficial to creating valuable learning experiences for students. Team planning allows teachers to collaboratively examine important issues and to develop a collective approach to instruction (Jackson & Davis, 2000). Both the organization of time and the preparation of materials are components of the broader practice of planning carefully for instruction. Once the plans are developed, evidence suggests that effective teachers follow the instructional or lesson plan while continuously adjusting it to fit the needs of different students.

During their instructional planning time, effective teachers assess or recall students' preconceptions and misconceptions about the subject matter. Pre-assessments can help gauge students' prior knowledge of the material. Effective teachers take into account the abilities of their students and the students' strengths and weaknesses as well as their interest levels. A study of teacher expectations revealed that teachers who had high classroom standards also planned in response to individual student performance, which was then linked to student achievement (Fuchs et al., 1994). Teachers who plan instruction based on student performance and interest levels meet both the affective needs of students and their cognitive needs.

Novice teachers have more difficulty responding to individual student needs in their planning. They tend to develop a “one-size-fits-all” approach to planning, whereas more experienced teachers build in differentiation and contingencies at different points during the lesson (Good & Brophy, 1997; Jay, 2002; Livingston & Borko, 1989; Sabers, Cushing, & Berliner, 1991). To further assist with meeting individual needs, effective teachers typically plan a blend of whole-group, small-group, and individualized instruction. Planning for instruction involves careful preparation for specific lessons, as well as long-term planning to ensure coverage of curriculum. Some studies have demonstrated that student achievement is related to the amount of content coverage a teacher accomplishes (see, for example, Dunkin, 1978; Dunkin & Doenau, 1980). Careful, deliberate planning maximizes the amount of content a teacher is able to cover.

Effective teachers also evaluate resources to use when teaching a unit or lesson. They use criteria such as appropriateness for grade level; alignment to national, state, or local standards; accuracy of information contained within the resource; the time allowed for the lesson or unit; and the learning benefits that come from using the resource (Buttram & Waters, 1997). For example, when showing a video on the causes of the Civil War, the teacher may select only a poignant quote or section from the video, rather than showing the entire segment. Teachers also recognize that other adults can be a resource for the learning process. They coordinate the participation of adults in order to promote student engagement (Pressley et al., 1998; Wharton-McDonald et al., 1998). In summary, effective teachers maximize the instructional benefits of resources while minimizing time allocated to less relevant or unnecessary material.

Since students learn at different rates, effective teachers plan academic enrichment and remediation opportunities for students. Through the teacher's knowledge of the students, it is possible to offer alternatives to a student or a small group of students who have mastered the material faster than the rest of the class. These students can study the concept on a deeper level or apply the concept in a different way. Students who may lack the prerequisite knowledge or skills need the teacher to give them time to learn the foundational material on which to build the new piece. Providing meaningful experiences for all students to learn is a goal of planning.

By planning a unit that takes into account the students' prior knowledge and prior performance as well as their learning styles, a teacher can implement effective vehicles for instruction. Teachers tend to teach in the manner that they themselves learn best; however, effective teachers stretch beyond that comfort zone to incorporate different learning styles. For example, during a lesson on the water cycle, the teacher may solicit ideas of what the students already know, run an action simulation in which students roll dice to determine where in the water cycle the students will go next, incorporate a writing experience where the students personify the water droplet to tell about their journey, graph where the droplets went, and then discuss what they observed and compare it to what they had previously thought. Whatever the unit, students benefit if the material can be connected to something they are already familiar with from prior school experiences or real-life situations. In the water cycle activity, the teacher can take what the students already knew, build upon it, and address some of their misconceptions. Conscientious planning for student instruction and engagement is a key to connecting the classroom to future success for students.

Research indicates that instructional planning for effective teaching includes the following elements:

• Identifying clear lesson and learning objectives while carefully linking activities to them, which is essential for effectiveness (Cotton, 2000; Wang et al., 1993b; Wharton-McDonald et al., 1998).
• Creating quality assignments, which is positively associated with quality instruction and quality student work (Clare, 2000).
• Planning lessons that have clear goals, are logically structured, and progress through the content step-by-step (Rosenshine, 1986; Zahorik et al., 2003).
• Planning the instructional strategies to be deployed in the classroom and the timing of these strategies (Cotton, 2000; Johnson, 1997).
• Using advance organizers, graphic organizers, and outlines to plan for effective instructional delivery (Marzano, Norford, Paynter, Pickering, & Gaddy, 2001; Wang et al., 1993b).
• Considering student attention spans and learning styles when designing lessons (Bain & Jacobs, 1990).
• Systematically developing objectives, questions, and activities that reflect higher-level and lower-level cognitive skills as appropriate for the content and the students (Brophy & Good, 1986; Porter & Brophy, 1988).

Related Resources: Bain & Jacobs, 1990; Berliner & Rosenshine, 1977; Brookhart & Loadman, 1992; Brophy & Good, 1986; Clare, 2000; Cotton, 1999, 2000; Covino & Iwanicki, 1996; Darling-Hammond, 2000, 2001; Education USA Special Report, n.d.; Emmer et al., 1980; Good & Brophy, 1997; Good & McCaslin, 1992; Jackson & Davis, 2000; Johnson, 1997; Livingston & Borko, 1989; Marzano, Norford, et al., 2001; Marzano, Pickering, & McTighe, 1993; Porter & Brophy, 1988; Pressley et al., 1998; Rosenshine, 1986; Sabers et al., 1991; Wharton-McDonald et al., 1998; Zahorik et al., 2003.

Teachers of At-Risk Students: Planning and Organizing for Instruction

Planning and organizing instruction for at-risk students mirrors those characteristics that have already been discussed; however, the literature does reveal aspects of planning that seem to be especially important for at-risk students. These aspects include the following:

• Planning for and protecting instructional time
• Maintaining high expectations
• Examining resources and lessons for bias
• Using a variety of instructional activities to enhance student learning

Planning for instruction involves planning meaningful lessons that communicate high expectations to students (Bernard, 2003). A strong indicator for students at risk of not succeeding or dropping out of school is the expectations of the adults that surround them (Wahlage & Rutter, 1986). Additionally, effective teachers do not focus merely on basic skills, even if students are lacking in these skills. Instead, they plan for mastery of the basics while incorporating higher-level, metacognitive thinking into the lesson. This is counter to the belief that “for most children in poverty, academically challenging work in mathematics and literacy should be postponed until they are ‘ready’—that is, until they have acquired full mastery of basic skills” (Knapp et al., 1992, p. i). By focusing on only lower-level basic skills, teachers communicate lower expectations. Consequently, effective teachers of at-risk students plan and organize instruction in such a way that students are exposed to the content and skills necessary to achieve.

Effective teachers of at-risk students do the following:

• Expect students to do their work and do not accept excuses (Bernard, 2003, Corbett & Wilson, 2002; Freel, 1998).
• Are on task every minute they are in the classroom and make sure students have time to learn (Bennett et al., 2004; Pressley et al., 2004; Wenglinsky, 2004).
• Examine the nature of the lesson and cultural assumptions that negatively affect at-risk students (Pransky & Bailey, 2002).
• Use pacing guides and timelines in order to align curriculum (Lewis, 2001).
• Plan for a variety of activities, including individualized instruction, student-led activities, student-centered learning time, and infusion of technology, if available (Day, 2002; Taylor, Pearson, Peterson, & Rodriquez, 2003).

Related Resources: Bennett et al., 2004; Bernard, 2003; Corbett & Wilson, 2002; Day, 2002; Knapp et al., 1992; Lewis, 2001; Pransky & Bailey, 2002; Pressley et al., 2004; Taylor et al., 2003; Wahlage & Rutter, 1986; Wenglinsky, 2004.

Teachers of High-Ability Students: Planning and Organizing for Instruction

Planning for high-ability learners involves taking into account the unique needs and abilities of the students, content that must be mastered, and effective strategies to use with them. Effective teachers of high-ability students use methods such as acceleration, content modification, or curriculum compacting in order to provide enriching, differentiated activities that foster students' academic growth. For example, a teacher can give a pre-assessment to determine the content and skills that students have already mastered so that valuable academic learning time is not squandered and students are not bored with learning information they already know or practicing skills they have already accomplished.

Content for gifted learners is often organized so that students can discover, experiment, and figure things out on their own. Additionally, learning experiences characterized by abstraction and complexity are needed to provide mental challenge for the learners (Hutchinson, 2004).

Unfortunately, gifted learners too frequently are given busywork to fill time (Johnson, 2000; Maker & Neilson, 1996). Effective teachers of the gifted understand that this type of busywork is counterproductive to establishing a positive learning environment. By planning differentiated activities and organizing content in such a way that encourages exploration, the effective teacher does not need to be concerned about what to do with students when they finish their work early. This approach to gifted instruction fosters growth in gifted students, rather than inhibiting it.

Effective teachers of gifted students do the following:

• Match task complexities and individual skills in the planning process, leading to greater student motivation and engagement (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993).
• Exhibit competency in the selection and use of materials (Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Nelson & Prindle, 1992; Story, 1985), particularly the ability to select appropriate high-level materials (Shore & Delcourt, 1996), and choose appropriate resources to use with students who are both gifted and diverse (Ford & Trotman, 2001).
• Facilitate access to needed resources, including providing access to advanced classes and materials, collaborating with other teachers and content-area experts, and connecting students with content-area experts and mentors (Shore & Delcourt, 1996; Westberg & Archambault, 1997).
• Use time well in the classroom (Heath, 1997; Silverman, 1995).
• Have high expectations of performance and expect their students to reach or exceed those high expectations (Bloom, 1985).

Related Resources: Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994; Heath, 1997; Hutchinson, 2004; Johnson, 2000; Maker & Nielson, 1996; Nelson & Prindle, 1992; Shore & Delcourt, 1996; Silverman, 1995; Story, 1985; Westberg & Archambault, 1997.