Across the United States, educators are asking what they can do to meet the education needs of Latino students. They are right to do so. Latinos are the largest minority group in the United States (Grieco & Cassidy, 2000) and represent the fastest-growing student population in U.S. public schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2001a). The increasing cultural and linguistic diversity that they bring to schools calls for reconsidering what effective pedagogy should be (García, 1999). How can we foster the academic strengths and address the needs of Latino students? Here are some suggestions.
Understand the Issues
The academic achievement of Latino students in the United States has consistently lagged behind that of their peers (U.S. Department of Education, 2001a; Wirt et al., 1998). Latinos have higher retention rates; they are over-represented in low-ability groups, special education programs, and among the expelled; and they are under-represented in college-bound programs and programs for gifted students (Meier & Stewart, 1991).
Latinos are not receiving a quality education in our public schools, and their high-status dropout rate, defined as “the proportion of young people ages 16 through 24 who are out of school and who have not earned a high school credential” (U.S. Department of Education, 2001b, p. v), attests to the magnitude of the problem. In 2000, the status dropout rate among Latinos was 27.8 percent, compared with 13.1 percent for African Americans and 6.9 percent for whites. Between 1972 and 2000, the dropout rate for African Americans and whites had declined by nearly 40 percent, but the percentages for Latinos remained the same, at approximately one-third of the young Latino population (U.S. Department of Education, 2001b).
Of the many studies that explore reasons for this phenomenon (Frau-Ramos & Nieto, 1993), some blame Latino children and their families for their difficulties in school, citing limited English proficiency, lack of motivation, or low family income. Indeed, these are strenuous factors to overcome, but other research has shed light on this complex problem. Fernández & Shu's (1988) comprehensive analysis of the U.S. government's longitudinal data on high school students, for example, revealed that Latino students dropped out of school at higher rates than their peers even when they had average grades, expected to stay in school through graduation, and did not fall into other at-risk categories. After examining the experiences of minority students in an urban high school, Fine (1991) concluded that rather than dropping out, these students were pushed out of school by the uncritical implementation of traditional curriculum mandates and school regulations.
Interviews with Latino high school students found that they did not feel as if they were part of the school or the classroom; they spoke of feeling invisible and of being treated as if they were less worthy than other students (Zanger, 1993). Another study found that teachers of linguistically diverse students emphasized low-level skills and had low expectations (Au & Kawakami, 1994). These circumstances must be eliminated from our schools as a first step toward developing culturally sensitive pedagogy.
Value Latino Strengths
Do Latinos and other linguistically diverse students bring deficits or assets to the school? The deficit view is that these students lack English language skills and the sooner they stop speaking their mother tongue and learn English, the sooner they will be able to succeed in school and be better prepared for life. This perspective, pervasive in many school systems, defines Latinos and other linguistically diverse students by what they don't have rather than by what they bring to the school.
A more positive approach views these students as having bilingual and bicultural skills that, if developed, would enable these students to respond to the increasing demands of their communities and the expanding global economy. This additive perspective does not see a contradiction between developing English proficiency and using Spanish as the primary learning tool to advance academic content knowledge.
A study of six high schools in California and Arizona that received recognition for their effectiveness in promoting the academic achievement of Spanish-dominant Latino students found that these schools placed the strengths and needs of their students, who were mostly of Mexican descent, at the center of their school reform (Lucas, Henze, & Donato, 1990). Four common features among these schools can serve as guidelines for school change.
Commitment to bilingual education. These schools had a strong commitment to promoting the equal development of English and Spanish language skills and to advancing content knowledge in all subject areas. The curriculum offered honors-level content courses in both the bilingual and mainstream programs and advanced-placement Spanish courses for native speakers, which helped Latino students capitalize on their native language skills to gain college credits. Bilingual counselors identified support programs that assisted Latino students with the academic demands of higher-level courses and facilitated transitions to mainstream classrooms. To ensure that students understood content knowledge, the faculty promoted the active use of Spanish in the classrooms. Bilingual and bicultural professional staff also served as mentors and role models to the Latino students.
High expectations. These schools offered advanced and honors courses in all academic programs. Bilingual counselors worked closely with Latino students, encouraging them to take college preparatory courses and assisting them with college and scholarship applications.
Staff development. Staff development programs offered salary bonuses for training that focused on helping English-language learners. Topics included sheltered English strategies, second language acquisition, English as a Second Language, bilingual education, Spanish, students' cultural backgrounds, cooperative learning methods, and cross-cultural communication.
Parent involvement. Strategies for involving parents included increasing the schools' bilingual counseling staff, meeting regularly with parents to discuss their children's program of studies, placing Latino parents on parent advisory committees, inviting college representatives to speak with parents in Spanish about admissions and scholarships, offering English classes for parents, and translating school newsletters into Spanish (Lucas et al., 1990).
These effective schools welcomed Latino parents as equal partners and respected what Latino students brought to the school.
Adopt Culturally Sensitive Pedagogy
Teachers get to know Latino students by looking at each one as an individual with personal academic strengths and learning styles (García, 1999). A single teaching strategy is not appropriate for all Latino students, just as one instructional strategy cannot reach all white students. Teachers need to use a variety of teaching tools, including thematic units, lectures, guided practice, cooperative learning groups, and development of critical thinking skills.
Viewing their Latino students as capable learners who deserve a challenging curriculum, successful teachers never accept low-quality work (García, 1999). They make their high expectations clear and scaffold students' learning (Brisk, Dawson, Hartgering, MacDonald, & Zehr, 2002).
They also understand the importance of language as a cognitive tool. To help Spanish-dominant students grasp concepts and clarify directions, effective teachers use Spanish for instruction or allow their students to use Spanish among themselves—as learning partners or in cooperative learning groups. They also design curriculum materials that are rich in opportunities for speaking, listening, reading, and writing in English (García, 1999).
- Plan adequate time to activate students' prior knowledge and encourage students to share what they already know in journals, small groups, or paired brainstorming sessions. Identify which concepts and vocabulary words students are missing; supply definitions and, if possible, provide their Spanish translation.
- Incorporate such visuals as pictures, drawings, graphs, and video clips (with the closed captions on). Provide outlines or graphic organizers for new material and handouts with detailed directions for in-class activities and homework. Model new skills, and use body language and facial expressions to convey new concepts. Be sensitive to students' nonverbal feedback; a glazed or questioning look speaks a thousand words.
- Assess students' understanding by asking questions. When English-language learners are orally expressing their thoughts and opinions, assess their understanding, not their language skills. Never interrupt them to correct their language mistakes. Use writing or one-on-one sessions to address common language errors. Use summaries at the end of the class to reinforce students' understanding. Establish classroom routines and mark transitions clearly to signal where you are in the lesson. In these ways, students can focus on comprehension and not on trying to figure out what they are supposed to do next (Brisk et al., 2002; Cummins, 1996; García, 1999).
Another important strategy is to tap the resources of parents; they are authoritative bearers of culture, and their involvement is crucial (Gándara, 1995; Rolón, 2000). Latino parents who are involved in their children's school life contribute significantly to curriculum development (Berriz, 2002; Keenan, Willet, & Solsken, 1993) and to improving their children's academic performance, attitudes towards school, and ability to adjust to the school environment (Bermúdez, 1994; Delgado-Gaitán, 1993).
Culturally appropriate pedagogy is about welcoming students' language, culture, and experiences into the classroom. The teacher who learns about Latino culture, history, and contributions to the subject area becomes a better scholar and is able to offer a more comprehensive curriculum to all students. Learning Spanish or another language increases the teacher's appreciation of the cognitive demands required in producing meaning in a second language and of students' dual language development and cognitive flexibility.
Examine Society's Unexamined Norms
Does incorporating the culture and language of Latino students into the classroom curriculum seem unnecessary? Educators should examine what Tatum calls whiteness as “the unexamined norm” (1997, p. 93). As Tatum explains, racism is so pervasive in our society that it permeates our ideological orientations and our relations to people from racially and culturally diverse backgrounds. Even white teachers who are aware of racism should reflect on ways in which their own upbringing and education prevented them from learning about and appreciating the experiences and contributions of other groups to society. With the number of Latinos and other students of color increasing in our schools, it is time to embark on this most urgent endeavor.
