When students, parents, and educators describe effective school leaders, they tend to focus on personal qualities. They mention the leaders' unusual dedication and concern, their initiative and persistence, or their commitment to high standards. Daniel Goleman (1995) refers to these qualities as emotional intelligence.
The basic concept behind emotional intelligence is that success and happiness depend on more than IQ. In fact, IQ accounts for only 20 percent of the factors that determine success in life. Unlike IQ, emotional intelligence is a cluster of personal and social competencies. These include self-awareness and self-control, motivation and persistence, empathy, and the ability to form mutually satisfying relationships.
Astute administrators have long recognized that effective leadership depends as much on character as on cognition. Consider the case of Melburn McBroom, described by Goleman (1995) in his chapter on emotional intelligence in the workplace. McBroom was a domineering airline pilot whose temper intimidated subordinates. One day in 1978, his plane developed a problem with the landing gear as it approached the airport. McBroom turned the plane over to the copilot and began trying to fix the problem. As the plane circled the airport, the cockpit crew noticed that the fuel gauges were approaching empty. But they were so fearful of McBroom's wrath that they said nothing. The plane crashed, killing 10 people. While this case is admittedly extreme, the Federal Aviation Administration estimates that in 80 percent of crashes, pilots make mistakes that could be prevented if the crew worked together better (Goleman 1995).
Educational leaders, like airline pilots, always have needed people skills, but today they need them more than ever. Principals, for instance, must now rely more on consensus and less on formal authority. To be successful, educational leaders must be able to forge working relationships with many people. They need to be mediators and mentors, negotiators and networkers. In short, educational leaders need to be more emotionally intelligent.
Critical Competencies
Research during the last decade has identified the personal and social competencies that are most critical for effective leadership. Boyatzis (1982) and Spencer and Spencer (1993) have reviewed many of these studies on educational administrators and other leaders. They found that when superior leaders are compared to average or below-average performers, several competencies consistently emerge.
Self-confidence is perhaps the most important trait. Consider, for instance, the 52-year-old principal of a middle school I studied. For years, absenteeism and student vandalism had plagued this inner-city school. Staff morale had been extremely low. Within three years, however, this principal had completely turned the situation around. The number of broken windows, for example, dropped from more than 300 per year to only three. Daily attendance increased from about 70 percent to over 95 percent. Teachers were enthusiastic about their work and their principal.
I asked this exceptional leader whether he had worried about failing. He answered, "No, I wasn't worried. I've failed plenty of times in my life, and I've always recovered. So I knew that no matter what happened here, I'd survive." This principal's self-confidence had much to do with his success. Further, he based his confidence on a realistic assessment of his strengths and weaknesses. Effective leaders base self-confidence on self-knowledge.
Leading Schools, Managing Emotions
A second distinguishing competency of effective leaders is the ability to modulate emotions. Educational leaders must work in highly charged environments. How they handle their emotional reactions will strongly affect their leadership.
The principal I just described was a virtuoso at managing his emotions. His ability to remain calm no matter how turbulent the situation became a model for his staff. And his outlook was the key to his stress management. Rather than fearing disagreement, he valued the expression of differing views and saw the diversity of opinions as vital for positive change. Also, this principal expected to encounter problems and resistance, and he did not anticipate any quick turnarounds. He believed it took about seven years for a school restructuring effort to have a significant impact. This long-term view made him less perturbed by the slow pace of change and the frequent setbacks. The ability to manage stress also enabled this principal to encourage innovation, because he was not overly alarmed by the prospect of mistakes. He told his teachers that they should try new things, and he assured them that if something went wrong, he would not punish them.
Another principal whose school I studied also managed stress skillfully. When she first came to her large, urban elementary school, she discovered that drug dealers used the house directly across the street. Most people in her position would have been cowed by the notorious characters who hung out on the corner every day. They certainly would not have the courage to confront the drug dealers directly. But this young principal did so. Overcoming her fear, she stood up to the dealers. She explained to them calmly but firmly that their presence was not good for the children and they would have to leave. She also made it clear that if they did not do so, she was prepared to make their lives very uncomfortable. When she managed to rid the neighborhood of them, she won the enduring respect of her staff and parents.
Successful leadership requires more than self-confidence and calm. Motivation and persistence also are important. What enables some educators to keep going when the going gets tough? Psychologist Martin Seligman (1991) suggests an important ingredient. He found that people tend to explain failures and setbacks in different ways. Optimists attribute failure to some specific external factor that can be changed. Pessimists attribute failure to some lasting characteristic that cannot be altered. Optimists are more likely to persist when they encounter an obstacle; pessimists are more likely to give up. School leaders encounter many obstacles to their efforts. Those who are able to persist in the face of these difficulties will have a strong advantage.
A Talent for Persuasiveness
Research reveals several other competencies that set effective educational administrators apart. They tend to be unusually persuasive, to score high in achievement motivation, and to show exceptional initiative. They identify potential opportunities and take action without hesitation.
One effective principal I met recently displayed strong initiative, persuasiveness, and achievement motivation in her handling of resource problems. Undaunted by inadequate district support for her school, she set out to find additional resources within the community. She began by getting herself appointed to various community boards. When she attended the board meetings, she discovered ways other board members could assist her school. Through her considerable powers of persuasion, she enlisted their aid. A local banker who worked with several principals in a community partnership program commented that this principal reached out for help from the bank more often than her colleagues did.
Cultivating Positive Relationships
Getting along with others is another significant facet of emotional intelligence. Effective leaders are particularly adept at building consensus, coordinating team efforts, appreciating multiple perspectives, and avoiding unproductive conflicts. These abilities enable them to develop the positive relationships necessary to achieve goals.
The educators I have interviewed for my own research on school change have repeatedly stressed the importance of "people skills" for effective leadership. In one troubled school, a principal turned the situation around largely through his treatment of others. He often praised teachers and students. One teacher said that he initially doubted the sincerity of this unprecedented praise, but gradually realized that it was authentic. The teacher said that he was more willing to extend himself for this principal because of this encouragement.
Another unusually effective principal was equally revered by staff, students, and parents. Members of her school community described her as warm, caring, and positive. One person said, "She doesn't miss an opportunity to praise a teacher." Another described her as a "real teacher advocate." Even though the disadvantaged parents at this school felt they had little to offer, this principal reached out to them with warmth and enthusiasm, involving many of them as part-time volunteers.
Developing Emotional Intelligence
Self-confidence and self-awareness. Self-control and self-motivation. Empathy and social skills. How can educators strengthen these vital competencies? Well-designed training programs are a starting point to help managers improve their personal and interpersonal abilities (Burke and Day 1986). For instance, one large company taught first-level supervisors interpersonal skills such as active listening, giving corrective feedback, involving employees in problem solving, and using positive reinforcement. The supervisors practiced these skills in six-hour sessions for seven weeks. The results were impressive. Compared to a control group, the supervisors who participated in the training increased their use of all the skills—and recorded significant declines in turnover and absenteeism among their workers. They also showed a 17 percent increase in production (Porras and Anderson 1981). This study demonstrates that managers can increase their social competence through effective training programs, and that increased social competence can lead to improved performance.
Research has also shown that the right kind of training can substantially increase achievement motivation. In one study, middle-level executives who participated in a five-day achievement motivation training program earned significantly more promotions and salary increases than a control group after two years (Aronoff and Litwin 1971). The results were even more impressive in a program for small business owners. After 12 months, those who participated in the program reported a 142 percent increase in monthly sales and a 118 percent increase in profits (Miron and McClelland 1979).
Training can enhance the personal competencies so vital for effective leadership in today's schools, but only if it is appropriately designed and implemented. Effective training programs begin with a safe learning environment. The participants want to change. They believe that they can learn the competencies and thereby achieve valued goals. The participants also are in control of the learning process, which relies heavily on active learning. Participants also have an opportunity to observe models, to practice the skills in realistic simulations, and to receive feedback. When the participants apply what they have learned on the job, their supervisors and coworkers support them. Finally, the participants anticipate the stress and setbacks that accompany any personal change effort (Caplan, Vinokur, and Price 1996; Kolb and Boyatzis 1970; Spencer and Spencer 1993).
Increasingly, schools are providing students with opportunities for social and emotional learning. We must be equally concerned with the social and emotional learning of our school leaders.
