Sandy, an elementary student, is struggling with the concept of multiplication. Because she is talented in art, her teacher asks her to create visual representations of the times tables. Sandy dives into the task with relish, drawing configurations of objects to depict "two times two," "two times three," and so on. When she is finished, she understands multiplication, because the concept has been expressed through visual images.
In tapping Sandy's visual-spatial intelligence, her teacher is applying the theory of multiple intelligences, which Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner set forth 11 years ago in his book Frames of Mind. Gardner argued that our traditional conception of intelligence—as primarily linguistic and logical abilities—is too narrow, and that all human beings actually have seven distinct intelligences (see box, p. 5).
Some educators who find Gardner's theory intuitively appealing are working to address all seven intelligences in their classrooms. Doing so helps students become more well-rounded, makes school more engaging and motivating, and enables more students to succeed, these educators say.
By cultivating a broad range of intelligences, teachers can uncover hidden strengths among students who don't shine at verbal or mathematical tasks. Similarly, students who are gifted in a paper-and-pencil environment may be weak in other areas, such as bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, or interpersonal skills. Teachers should nurture all students' strengths and challenge them in areas where they are less developed, says Thomas Armstrong, an education consultant and author of ASCD's Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom.
There is no recipe for applying the theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner himself considers his theory "a Rorschach blot," because educators can draw diametrically opposed conclusions from it. Some might choose to identify students' strengths and focus on nurturing them; others might identify weaknesses and work to shore them up; still others might give equal time to all seven intelligences. Although Gardner does not endorse any particular approach, he urges educators to take the differences among their students "very seriously." Get a lot of detailed, personal knowledge about how children's minds work—then use it to guide instruction, he advises. "Don't treat everybody the same."
A self-described "purist," Bruce Campbell, a teacher and staff developer in the Marysville (Wash.) schools, weaves all seven intelligences into everything he teaches in his nongraded elementary classroom. In teaching about photosynthesis, for example, Campbell might have his students read about the concept (linguistic), use diagrams (spatial), analyze the sequence of the process (logical-mathematical), dramatize the process or manipulate fact cards (bodily-kinesthetic), create a song about it (musical), work in groups (interpersonal), and do a reflective activity, such as comparing photosynthesis to a change in their own lives (intrapersonal).
To make this approach feasible, Campbell has created seven centers in his classroom, each focused on one intelligence. Students rotate through the centers for half of each day. Campbell emphasizes that he organizes the curriculum around themes. Teaching the traditional curriculum in all seven ways "would take 100 years," he says.
Dee Patrick, a teacher at Russell Elementary School in Lexington, Ky., also uses centers to help her students develop all seven intelligences. Five or six children work at each center for about 35–40 minutes, then rotate to the next. The centers are named after famous figures who exemplify the intelligences, including Martin Luther King Jr. (interpersonal) and Leonardo da Vinci (spatial).
Like Campbell, Patrick uses a thematic approach. In learning about outer space, for example, her students might design a constellation pattern (spatial), simulate walking on the moon (bodily-kinesthetic), and reflect on the Challenger disaster (intrapersonal). Students love working at the centers, Patrick says, and many strengths are revealed when they do.
Addressing multiple intelligences "provides more students with opportunities for success," Campbell says. Among his students, he sees "different kinds of leadership emerging spontaneously" as children identify their own strengths and those of others. Some students are learning much better, he believes—those whose strengths do not lie in the linguistic or logical areas. And students are more accepting of one another.
One boy who had poor basic skills, low self-esteem, and no friends was transformed after other students realized he had "a remarkable propensity" for music, Campbell relates. As the boy began to use his newfound musical ability, his popularity and self-esteem rose. With a new, positive attitude toward school, he made strides in other areas, including reading and writing.
Recognizing multiple intelligences gives every student "the feeling of success," says Rhonda Flanery, another Russell Elementary teacher who uses intelligence centers. Because her class is not tracked into "the dummies, the okays, and the smarties," her students are less competitive and more willing to cooperate and share, she adds.
Teachers should not feel they have to work all seven intelligences into every lesson; such an approach is too rigid, says Linda Campbell of Antioch University, primary author of Teaching and Learning Through Multiple Intelligences. Incorporating even four intelligences into a lesson can be "a stretch," she believes. "You need some depth; otherwise teaching becomes cute and fluffy."
Teachers should not assume that all seven intelligences can be used to teach everything, Gardner cautions. In considering potential learning activities, teachers must ask first, "Is it sensible?" and second, "Does it work?"
Using Projects
While some teachers use centers, others apply Gardner's theory through interdisciplinary projects that call on students to use several intelligences.
At Skyview Junior High School in Bothell, Wash., 7th grade students study an integrated unit called "Genetics: Who Am I?" Science and math are the primary focus, teacher Jeff DeGallier explains, but the three-week unit also incorporates art, music, and other activities, "to hit all the intelligences at least once."
Besides reading about genetics, students observe a simulation of pulling apart strands of DNA, write essays and poems on "nature vs. nurture," and create murals to express their identities. In math, students study probability to explore variation among traits—examining questions such as "What is the chance of having blue eyes?"
Teachers at Lincoln High School in Stockton, Calif., use a project-based approach that integrates science, social science, and language arts, says Pam Martin, a science teacher at the school. Teachers insist that students develop areas of weakness as well as capitalize on their strengths. "We emphasize students' looking at themselves holistically," Martin says.
One Lincoln student researched the antidepressant Prozac. She interviewed professors of pharmacology, created a dance that expressed the drug's effect on mood, and—to stretch herself in a weak area—spoke on the topic before a group. Another student studied caffeine. He extracted it in a chemical experiment, wrote about its role in our culture, and created a musical medley to convey the sensation of drinking one's first cup of coffee in the morning.
When schools honor multiple intelligences, students achieve more overall because they can draw on their strengths, Martin believes. When students receive accolades for their special talents, their sense of self-worth and comfort level are bolstered, sending them into an "upward spiral" of greater enthusiasm for school.
But even if teachers want to address all seven intelligences, it's natural to shy away from one's weaknesses. How can a teacher who is tone deaf help students develop their musical intelligence, or a teacher who is uncoordinated teach bodily-kinesthetic skills?
Teachers cannot escape their bias toward their own strengths, says Linda Campbell. Therefore, they must team with others who have expertise in areas where they themselves are weak. Teachers in a school should acknowledge their strengths and rely on one another, she advises. "We're not all Renaissance people."
Teachers at Skyview Junior High School act as "intelligence experts" for one another, DeGallier says. In planning how to teach a novel, for example, an English teacher might ask a science or math teacher, "How would you incorporate logic?" Teacher teams share a daily planning period, and the synergy among team members is "amazing," DeGallier says. "The ideas fly."
Teachers can also call on outside expertise. One Washington school coordinated parent volunteers to teach weekly enrichment activities, Linda Campbell says. Students could choose from a menu of topics, including gardening, cooking, music, and various forms of art. "It was not a one-shot but a yearlong effort," she says. Because the intelligences are so diverse, Bruce Campbell believes teachers should bring into the classroom a variety of experts—such as visual artists, musicians, and newspaper reporters—and coordinate apprenticeships, if possible.
Although tapping expertise is important, teachers should not always avoid using an undeveloped intelligence, experts say. By occasionally working outside their comfort zone, they can set a valuable example for students.
Multiple Assessments?
As teachers work to develop a wider range of student intelligences, assessment must also change, experts say. Relying heavily on paper-and-pencil tests "ropes kids back into a unidimensional concept of intelligence," Armstrong points out. "It's hypocritical to teach in seven ways and assess in one," he believes. "It sends a mixed message to kids." If teachers use varied forms of assessment instead, they will gather more diagnostic information and allow more students to successfully demonstrate what they know.
Assessing learning through multiple intelligences poses a challenge, however. Should teachers allow a child to paint a picture or create a dance to show understanding of a concept?
Linda Campbell believes it's feasible for students to demonstrate their learning in multiple ways, if assessment criteria are clearly articulated in advance. If students choose to write a song to show their understanding of air pollution, for example, the teacher should specify what the song must convey: major sources of pollution, its political implications, and potential solutions, for example. To define criteria to guide student work, teachers can develop rubrics for major curriculum units in collaboration with students, she suggests.
"We have to be willing to allow various methods of assessment," says DeGallier. He agrees that using rubrics can help teachers determine if students grasp a concept such as economic interdependence—whether students write an essay, create a diagram, or perform a skit to show what they've learned. Certain skills are intelligence-specific, however, and should be assessed directly, he says. If the objective is for students to learn to write a five-paragraph essay, then they should be required to write one for assessment purposes.
According to Gardner, "the important thing is whether you, as the teacher, can evaluate whether the kid does or doesn't understand" on the basis of the assessment. A promising approach could be to "co-interpret" the assessment with the student, he says. But teachers mustn't sacrifice their critical faculty just to allow flexibility.
Labels and Limits
Ways to apply Gardner's theory may vary, but educators are unanimous that multiple intelligences should not be used as labels that limit students' opportunities or their sense of their own potential. "When someone says, `There's Sally—she's linguistic,' I just cringe," Gardner says, "because of the implication that that's the last word on the subject."
Linda Campbell is "very concerned about teachers labeling students and students labeling themselves." Teachers may fail to appreciate that intelligences can be enhanced and changed, based on need, motivation, and opportunity. "Intelligence is dynamic and modifiable," she emphasizes. "Each intelligence has its own developmental timetable; some develop later than others," she adds.
If the theory of multiple intelligences is "misinterpreted," it could become the basis for another form of tracking, says Cindy Catalano, a teacher at Madrona School in Edmonds, Wash. Teachers must recognize that students' strengths change over time, she says, noting that she herself did not begin to develop her kinesthetic intelligence until college. Teachers should underscore that people have more than one strength, and give students experiences in all the intelligence areas.
While teachers should celebrate the areas where students are gifted, they should not "cut them any slack" in other areas, says DeGallier. For instance, students who are very kinesthetic but not verbal can't be allowed to use the excuse "I'm a kinesthetic person" to justify poor performance in English class. Teachers should not "shut down or demean" these students, DeGallier says, but encourage them to think, "If verbal-linguistic intelligence is lowest on my totem pole, then I have to work that much harder in that area."
Gardner says he is "delighted" that teachers are trying to translate his theory into classroom practice—an undertaking he considers "very hard." Often, he believes, applications of his theory are "more well-motivated than demonstrably effective." But if his theory prompts educators to reflect on teaching and learning, he's glad.
The appeal Gardner's theory has for educators is well expressed by Joan Sorenson, principal of Expo for Excellence Middle School in St. Paul, Minn. "If education deals only with the linguistic and logical-mathematic intelligences—if it sees the others as unimportant, as extras—then we miss out on a lot of what motivates and drives human beings," Sorenson says. Rather than ignoring certain intelligences, teachers should be calling them all into play to improve learning.
Seven Ways to Be Smart
Seven Ways to Be Smart
According to Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, all people possess seven distinct sets of capabilities. Gardner emphasizes that these intelligences work in concert, not in isolation. The seven intelligences are:
Spatial: The ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations upon one's perceptions. This intelligence is highly developed in hunters, scouts, guides, interior designers, architects, artists, and inventors.
Bodily-Kinesthetic: Expertise in using one's whole body to express ideas and feelings and facility in using one's hands to produce or transform things. Highly developed in actors, mimes, athletes, dancers, craftspersons, sculptors, mechanics, and surgeons.
Musical: The capacity to perceive, discriminate, transform, and express musical forms. Highly developed in musical performers, aficionados, and critics.
Linguistic: The capacity to use words effectively, either orally or in writing. Highly developed in story-tellers, orators, politicians, poets, playwrights, editors, and journalists.
Logical-Mathematical: The capacity to use numbers effectively and to reason well. Highly developed in mathematicians, tax accountants, statisticians, scientists, computer programmers, and logicians.
Interpersonal: The ability to perceive and make distinctions in the moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people. This intelligence can include sensitivity to facial expressions, voice, and gestures, as well as the ability to respond effectively to such cues—to influence other people, for example.
Intrapersonal: Self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively on the basis of that knowledge. This intelligence includes having an accurate picture of one's strengths and limitations, awareness of one's moods and motivations, and the capacity for self-discipline.
Adapted from the ASCD book Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom by Thomas Armstrong.
Editor's note: Thomas Armstrong's book, Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, has been distributed to all Comprehensive and Regular members of ASCD. To purchase copies ($14.95 each), contact ASCD's Order Processing Department, 1250 N. Pitt St., Alexandria, VA 22314; (703) 549-9110.