We do not see in our descriptions [of classroom activity] … much opportunity for students to become engaged with knowledge so as to employ their full range of intellectual abilities. And one wonders about the meaningfulness of whatever is acquired by students who sit listening or performing relatively repetitive exercises, year after year. Part of the brain, known as Magoun's brain, is stimulated by novelty. It appears to me that students spending 12 years in the schools we studied would be unlikely to experience much novelty. Does part of the brain just sleep, then?

—John I. Goodlad

MI theory makes its greatest contribution to education by suggesting that teachers need to expand their repertoire of techniques, tools, and strategies beyond the typical linguistic and logical ones predominantly used in American classrooms. According to John Goodlad's pioneering "A Study of Schooling" project, which involved researchers in observing over 1,000 classrooms nationwide, nearly 70 percent of classroom time is consumed by "teacher" talk—mainly teachers talking "at" students, such as by giving instructions or lecturing. The next most widely observed activity was students doing written assignments, and according to Goodlad (2004), "much of this work was in the form of responding to directives in workbooks or on worksheets" (p. 230). Twenty-five years after Goodlad's study was originally published, the scenario has not changed much and may even, in fact, have become worse. The federal government's No Child Left Behind law has created a climate in which standardized tests, and standardized methods to prepare for them, have overwhelmed the landscape in schools across the United States (Wallis, 2008). In this context, the theory of multiple intelligences functions not only as a specific remedy to one- sidedness in teaching but also as a "metamodel" for organizing and synthesizing all the educational innovations that have sought to break out of this narrowly confined approach to learning. In doing so, MI theory provides a broad range of stimulating curricula to "awaken" the slumbering brains that Goodlad fears populate our nation's schools.

The Historical Background of Multimodal Teaching

Multiple intelligences as a philosophy guiding instruction is hardly a new concept. Even Plato (1952), in a manner of speaking, seemed aware of the importance of multimodal teaching when he wrote: "… do not use compulsion, but let early education be a sort of amusement; you will then be better able to find out the natural bent" (p. 399). More recently, virtually all the pioneers of modern education developed systems of teaching based upon more than verbal pedagogy. The 18th-century philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau declared in his classic treatise on education, Emile, that the child must learn not through words but through experience, not through books but through "the book of life." The Swiss reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi emphasized an integrated curriculum that regarded physical, moral, and intellectual training based solidly on concrete experiences. And the founder of the modern-day kindergarten, Friedrich Froebel, developed a curriculum consisting of hands-on experiences with manipulatives ("gifts"), in addition to playing games, singing songs, gardening, and caring for animals. In the 20th century, innovators like Maria Montessori and John Dewey evolved systems of instruction based upon MI-like techniques, including Montessori's tactile letters and other self-paced materials and Dewey's vision of the classroom as a microcosm of society.

By the same token, many recent alternative educational models essentially are multiple intelligence systems using different terminologies (and with varying levels of emphasis upon the different intelligences). Cooperative learning, for example, seems to place its greatest emphasis upon interpersonal intelligence, yet specific activities can involve students in each of the other intelligences as well. Similarly, whole language instruction has at its core the cultivation of linguistic intelligence, yet it uses music, hands-on activities, introspection (through journal keeping), and group work to carry out its fundamental goals.

MI theory essentially encompasses what good teachers have always done in their teaching: reaching beyond the text and the blackboard to awaken students' minds. Two exemplary movies about great teachers, Stand and Deliver (1987) and Dead Poets Society (1989), underline this point. In Stand and Deliver, Jaime Escalante (played by Edward James Olmos), a high school mathematics teacher, uses apples to introduce fractions, fingers to teach multiplication, and imagery and metaphor to clarify negative numbers (if one digs a hole in the ground, the hole represents negative numbers, the pile of dirt next to it signifies positive numbers). John Keating (played by Robin Williams), the prep school instructor in Dead Poets Society, has students reading literary passages while kicking soccer balls and listening to classical music. MI theory provides a way for all teachers to reflect upon their best teaching methods and to understand why these methods work (or why they work well for some students but not for others). It also helps teachers expand their current teaching repertoire to include a broader range of methods, materials, and techniques for reaching an ever wider and more diverse range of learners.

The MI Teacher

A teacher in an MI classroom contrasts sharply with a teacher in a traditional linguistic/logical-mathematical classroom. In the traditional classroom, the teacher lectures while standing at the front of the classroom, writes on the blackboard, asks students questions about the assigned reading or handouts, and waits while students finish their written work. In the MI classroom, while keeping her educational objective firmly in mind, the teacher continually shifts her method of presentation from linguistic to spatial to musical and so on, often combining intelligences in creative ways.

The MI teacher may spend part of the time lecturing and writing on the blackboard at the front of the room. This, after all, is a legitimate teaching technique. Teachers have simply been doing too much of it. The MI teacher, however, also draws pictures on the blackboard or shows a video clip to illustrate an idea. She often plays music at some time during the day, either to set the stage for an objective, to make a point about the objective, or to provide an environment for studying the objective. The MI teacher provides hands-on experiences, whether they involve getting students up and moving about, passing an artifact around to bring to life the material studied, or having students build something tangible to reveal their understanding. The MI teacher also has students interacting with each other in different ways (e.g., in pairs, small groups, or large groups); plans time for students to engage in self-reflection, undertake self-paced work, or link their personal experiences and feelings to the material being studied; and creates opportunities for learning to occur through living things.

Such characterizations of what the MI teacher does and does not do, however, should not serve to rigidify the instructional dimensions of MI theory. The theory can be implemented in a wide range of instructional contexts, from highly traditional settings where teachers spend much of their time directly teaching students to open environments where students regulate most of their own learning. Even traditional linguistic teaching can take place in a variety of ways designed to stimulate the eight intelligences. The teacher who lectures with rhythmic emphasis (musical), draws pictures on the board to illustrate points (spatial), makes dramatic gestures as she talks (bodily-kinesthetic), pauses to give students time to reflect (intrapersonal), asks questions that invite spirited interaction (interpersonal), and includes references to nature in her lectures (naturalist) is using MI principles within a traditional teacher-centered perspective.

Key Materials and Methods of MI Teaching

There are a number of teaching tools in MI theory that go far beyond the traditional teacher-as-lecturer mode of instruction. Figure 5.1 provides a quick summary of some MI teaching methods. The list on pp. 60–64 provides a broader, but still incomplete, survey of the techniques and materials that can be employed in teaching through the multiple intelligences. (Capitalized items in the list are discussed more fully in Chapter 6.)

Figure 5.1. Summary of the Eight Ways of Teaching

Linguistic

• Books
• BRAINSTORMING
• Choral reading
• Debates
• Extemporaneous speaking
• Individualized reading
• JOURNAL KEEPING
• Large- and small-group discussions
• Lectures
• Manuals
• Memorizing linguistic facts
• PUBLISHING (e.g., creating class newspapers)
• Reading to the class
• Sharing time
• STORYTELLING
• Student speeches
• Talking books
• TAPE RECORDING ONE'S WORDS
• Using word processing software
• Word games
• Worksheets
• Writing activities

Logical-Mathematical

• CLASSIFICATIONS AND CATEGORIZATIONS
• Computer programming languages
• Creating codes
• HEURISTICS
• Logic puzzles and games
• Logical problem-solving exercises
• Logical-sequential presentation of subject matter
• Mathematical problems on the board
• Piagetian cognitive exercises
• CALCULATIONS AND QUANTIFICATIONS
• SCIENCE THINKING
• Scientific demonstrations
• SOCRATIC QUESTIONING

Spatial

• 3-D construction kits
• Art appreciation
• Charts, graphs, diagrams, and maps
• COLOR CUES
• Computer graphics software
• Creative daydreaming
• Draw-and-paint/computer-assisted-design software
• GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
• IDEA SKETCHING
• Imaginative storytelling
• Mind-maps and other visual organizers
• Optical illusions
• Painting, collage, and other visual arts
• Photography
• Picture literacy experiences
• PICTURE METAPHORS
• Videos, slides, and movies
• Visual awareness activities
• Visual pattern seeking
• Visual puzzles and mazes
• Visual thinking exercises
• VISUALIZATION

Bodily-Kinesthetic

• BODY ANSWERS
• BODY MAPS
• CLASSROOM THEATER
• Competitive and cooperative games
• Cooking, gardening, and other "messy" activities
• Crafts
• Creative movement
• Field trips
• Hands-on activities of all kinds
• HANDS-ON THINKING
• KINESTHETIC CONCEPTS
• Manipulatives
• Mime
• Physical awareness exercises
• Physical education activities
• Physical relaxation exercises
• Tactile materials and experiences
• Use of kinesthetic imagery
• Using body language/hand signals to communicate
• Virtual reality software

Musical

• Creating new melodies for concepts
• DISCOGRAPHIES
• Group singing
• Linking old tunes with concepts
• Listening to inner musical imagery
• MOOD MUSIC
• Music appreciation
• Musical composition software
• MUSICAL CONCEPTS
• Playing live music on piano, guitar, or other instruments
• Playing percussion instruments
• Playing recorded music
• RHYTHMS, SONGS, RAPS, AND CHANTS
• Singing, humming, or whistling
• SUPERMEMORY MUSIC
• Using background music

Interpersonal

• Academic clubs
• Apprenticeships
• BOARD GAMES
• Community involvement
• Conflict mediation
• COOPERATIVE GROUPS
• Cross-age tutoring
• Group brainstorming sessions
• Interactive software or Internet platforms
• Interpersonal interaction
• Parties or social gatherings as context for learning
• PEER SHARING
• PEOPLE SCULPTURES
• SIMULATIONS

Intrapersonal

• CHOICE TIME
• Exposure to inspirational/motivational curricula
• FEELING-TONED MOMENTS
• GOAL-SETTING SESSIONS
• Independent study
• Individualized projects and games
• Interest centers
• ONE-MINUTE REFLECTION PERIODS
• Options for homework
• PERSONAL CONNECTIONS
• Private spaces for study
• Self-esteem activities
• Self-paced instruction
• Self-teaching programmed instruction

Naturalist

• Aquariums, terrariums, and other portable ecosystems
• Class weather station
• ECO-STUDY
• Gardening
• Nature-oriented software
• Nature study tools (binoculars, telescope, microscope)
• Nature videos, films, and movies
• NATURE WALKS
• PET-IN-THE-CLASSROOM
• PLANTS AS PROPS
• WINDOWS ONTO LEARNING

How to Create MI Lesson Plans

On one level, MI theory applied to the curriculum might best be represented by a loose and diverse collection of teaching strategies such as those listed above. In this sense, MI theory represents a model of instruction that has no distinct rules other than the demands imposed by the cognitive components of the intelligences themselves and the specific needs of the domain in which they are teaching (e.g., math, science, literature, etc.). Teachers can pick and choose from the above activities, implementing the theory in ways suited to their own unique teaching style and congruent with their educational philosophy (as long as that philosophy does not declare that all children learn in the exact same way).

On a deeper level, however, MI theory suggests a set of parameters within which educators can create new curricula. In fact, the theory provides a context within which educators can address any skill, content area, theme, or instructional objective and develop at least eight ways to teach it. Essentially, MI theory offers a means of building daily lesson plans, weekly units, year-long themes, and programs in such a way that all students can have their strongest intelligences addressed at least some of the time.

The best way to approach curriculum development using the theory of multiple intelligences is by thinking about how one can translate the material to be taught from one intelligence to another. In other words, how can we take a linguistic symbol system, such as the English language, and translate it not into other linguistic languages, such as Spanish or French, but into the languages of other intelligences, namely, pictures, physical or musical expressions, logical symbols or concepts, social interactions, intrapersonal connections, and naturalistic associations?

The following seven-step procedure suggests one way to create lesson plans or curriculum units using MI theory as an organizing framework:

1. Focus on a specific objective or topic. You might want to develop curricula on a large scale (e.g., for a year-long theme) or create a program for reaching a specific instructional objective (e.g., for a student's individualized education plan). Whether you have chosen "ecology" or "the schwa sound" as a focus, however, make sure you have clearly and concisely stated the objective. Place the objective or topic in the center of a sheet of paper, as shown in Figure 5.2.
2. Ask key MI questions. Figure 5.2 shows the kinds of questions to ask when developing a curriculum for a specific objective or topic. These questions can help prime the creative pump for the next steps.
3. Consider the possibilities. Look over the questions in Figure 5.2, the list of MI techniques and materials in Figure 5.1, and the descriptions of specific strategies in Chapter 6. Which of the methods and materials seem most appropriate? Think also of other possibilities not listed.
4. Brainstorm. Using an MI Planning Sheet like the one shown in Figure 5.3, begin listing as many teaching approaches as possible for each intelligence. You should end up with something like the sheet shown in Figure 5.4. When listing approaches, be specific about the topic you want to address (e.g., "video clip of rain forest" rather than simply "video clip"). The rule of thumb for brainstorming is "list everything that comes to mind." Aim for at least 20 or 30 ideas and at least two or three ideas for each intelligence. Brainstorming with colleagues may help stimulate your thinking.
5. Select appropriate activities. From the ideas on your completed planning sheet, circle the approaches that seem most workable in your educational setting.
6. Set up a sequential plan. Using the approaches you've selected, design a lesson plan or unit around the specific topic or objective chosen. Figure 5.5 shows what an eight-day lesson plan might look like when 35 to 40 minutes of class time each day are allotted to the objective.
7. Implement the plan. Gather the materials needed, select an appropriate time frame, and then carry out the lesson plan. Modify the lesson as needed to incorporate changes that occur during implementation (e.g., based on feedback from students).

Appendix C contains additional examples of MI lessons and programs.

Figure 5.2. MI Planning Questions

Figure 5.3. MI Planning Sheet

Figure 5.4. Completed MI Planning Sheet on Punctuation

Figure 5.5. Sample Eight-Day MI Lesson Plan

Level: 4th grade  Subject: Language arts  Objective: To understand the function of, and differences between, four punctuation marks: the question mark, period, comma, and exclamation point.  Monday(Linguistic Intelligence): Students listen to a verbal explanation of the function of punctuation marks, read sentences having examples of each mark, and complete a worksheet requiring them to fill in their own marks.  Tuesday(Spatial Intelligence): The teacher draws on the board graphic images that correspond in meaning and form to each mark. Question mark = a hook, since questions "hook" us into requiring an answer; exclamation point = a staff that you pound on the floor when you want to exclaim something; a period = a point, since you've just made your point, plain and simple; and a comma = a brake pedal, since it requires you to temporarily stop in the middle of a sentence. Students can make up their own images and then place them as pictures in sentences (with different colors assigned to different marks).  Wednesday(Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence): The teacher asks students to use their bodies to form the shapes of the different punctuation marks as she reads sentences requiring these marks (e.g., a curved body posture for question mark).  Thursday(Musical Intelligence): Students make up different sounds for the punctuation marks (as Victor Borge did in his comedy routines) and then make these sounds in unison as different students read sample sentences requiring the use of the four marks.  Friday(Logical-Mathematical Intelligence): Students form groups of four to six. Each group has a box divided into four compartments, each of which is assigned a punctuation mark. The groups sort sentence stubs with missing punctuation marks (one per sentence stub) into the four compartments according to the punctuation needed.  Monday(Interpersonal Intelligence): Students form groups of four to six. Each student has four cards, and each card has a different punctuation mark written on it. The teacher places a sentence requiring a given punctuation mark on the overhead projector. As soon as students see the sentence, they toss the relevant card in the center of their group's circle. The first student in the group to throw in a correct card gets five points, the second four, and so on.  Tuesday(Intrapersonal Intelligence): Students are asked to create their own sentences using each of the punctuation marks; the sentences should relate to their personal lives (e.g., a question they'd like somebody to answer, a statement they feel strongly about, a fact they know that they'd like others to know about).  Wednesday(Naturalist Intelligence): Students are asked to assign an animal and its respective sound to each of the punctuation marks (e.g., a period might be a dog barking; a comma, a duck quacking; a question mark, a cat meowing; and an exclamation point, a lion roaring). As the teacher (or a student) reads a passage, the students make the animal sounds corresponding to each punctuation mark encountered.

MI and Thematic Instruction

More and more educators are recognizing the importance of teaching students from an interdisciplinary point of view. Although academic skill teaching or the teaching of isolated chunks of knowledge may provide students with competencies or background information that can prove useful to them in their further education, such instruction often fails to connect students to the real world—a world that they will have to function in as citizens a few years hence. Consequently, educators are turning toward models of instruction that more closely imitate or mirror life in some significant way. Such instruction is frequently thematic in nature. Themes cut through traditional curricular boundaries, weave together subjects and skills that are found naturally in life, and provide students with opportunities to use their multiple intelligences in practical ways. As Susan Kovalik (1993), developer of the Integrated Thematic Instruction model, puts it: "A key feature of here and now curriculum is that it is immediately recognized (by the student) as being relevant and meaningful. … Furthermore, it purports to teach our young about their world and the skills necessary to act within and upon it, thus preparing themselves for living the fast-paced changes of the [future]" (p. 5). Kovalik's thematic model is based in part on year-long themes (e.g., "What Makes It Tick?") that are themselves made up of month-long components (e.g., clocks/time, electrical power, transportation) and weekly topics (e.g., seasonal change and geologic time). Other curricular approaches focus on alternative time frames, such as semester units or three-month themes. Regardless of the time element involved, MI theory provides a context for structuring thematic curricula. It provides a way of making sure the activities selected for a theme will activate all eight intelligences and therefore draw upon every child's inner gifts.

Figure 5.6 outlines the kinds of activities that might be used for the theme "Inventions." It shows how activities can be structured to address traditional academic subjects as well as each of the eight intelligences. Significantly, this chart illustrates how science activities needn't focus only on logical-mathematical intelligence and how language activities (reading and writing) needn't focus only on linguistic intelligence. They can, in fact, span all eight intelligences.

Figure 5.6. MI and Thematic Instruction: Sample Theme: Inventions

Keep in mind that MI theory can be applied to the curriculum in a variety of ways. There are no standard guidelines to follow. The ideas in this chapter are suggestions only. I invite you to create other forms or formulas for lesson planning or thematic development and encourage you to incorporate other formats, including those developed by educators such as Kovalik (1993) and Hunter (see Gentile, 1988). Ultimately, you should be guided by your deepest and sincerest attempts to reach beyond the intelligences you may currently be teaching to, so that every child has the opportunity to succeed in school.

For Further Study

1. Look over the list of teaching strategies in this chapter. Circle the strategies you use or have used in your instruction. Place a yellow star next to the approaches that have worked best. Place a red flag next to the activities you think you use too much. Finally, place a blue arrow pointing upward next to new activities you would like to try. Over the next few weeks, eliminate or scale back your use of some of the red-flagged/overused techniques, increase the time you spend using the yellow-starred approaches, and add some of the blue-arrowed techniques to your teaching repertoire.
2. Select a specific skill or instructional objective that many of your students don't seem to be effectively learning. Apply the seven-step planning process described in this chapter to generate a multiple intelligence lesson or series of lessons, and then teach your students using the activities you've developed.
   Afterward, reflect upon the lesson. Which parts were most successful? Which were least successful? Ask students to reflect upon the lesson in the same way. What have you learned from this experience that can help you regularly teach through multiple intelligences?
3. Select a theme to serve as a basis for a curriculum in your class. Use the seven-step lesson-planning process described in this chapter to generate a basic framework of activities that includes all eight intelligences and each academic subject area. (Refer to Figure 5.6 for guidance in developing activities.)
4. Focus on an intelligence that you usually don't touch upon in your teaching, create a lesson plan that includes it, and teach the lesson to your students. (See Appendix B for instructional resources in each intelligence.)